Martha J. Cox

Teachers' Judgments of Problems in the Transition to Kindergarten

Abstract This article examined teachers’ judgments of the prevalence and types of problems children present upon entering kindergarten. A large, national sample of teachers (N = 3,595) was surveyed by using the National Center for Early Development and Learning’s Transition Practices Survey (1996) . Teachers reported they perceived that 16% of children had difficult entries into kindergarten. Up to 46% of teachers reported that half their class or more had specific problems in any of a number of areas in kindergarten transition. Rates of perceived problems were related to school minority composition; district poverty level; and, for certain behaviors, school metropolitan status. The effects of these demographic characteristics were independent and additive. Teachers’ ethnicity showed a significant relation to their rates of reported problems. Results are discussed in terms of risk factors that predict transition problems and the match between children’s competencies and teacher’s expectations. These findings confirm the view that entering kindergarten is indeed a period of transition for children.

Understanding Families as Systems

In this article, we discuss recent research that has arisen from theoretical and conceptual models that use a systems metaphor for understanding families. We suggest that research stimulated by such models leads social scientists in new and important directions in understanding the social and emotional development of children in their families. These models view development as resulting from the dynamic transactions across multiple levels of family systems, which regulate a childs behavior. Thus, these models are important in considering multiple influences on development and adaptation.

Salivary cortisol mediates effects of poverty and parenting on executive functions in early childhood.

In a predominantly low-income population-based longitudinal sample of 1,292 children followed from birth, higher level of salivary cortisol assessed at ages 7, 15, and 24 months was uniquely associated with lower executive function ability and to a lesser extent IQ at age 3 years. Measures of positive and negative aspects of parenting and household risk were also uniquely related to both executive functions and IQ. The effect of positive parenting on executive functions was partially mediated through cortisol. Typical or resting level of cortisol was increased in African American relative to White participants. In combination with positive and negative parenting and household risk, cortisol mediated effects of income-to-need, maternal education, and African American ethnicity on child cognitive ability.

Family Income and Its Relation to Preschool Children's Adjustment for Families in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care

The current study examines relations of mean-level estimates, linear changes, and instability in income and family processes to child outcomes and addresses whether income, through its impact on family functioning, matters more for children living in poverty. Temporal changes and instability in family processes, but not income, predicted childrens adjustment. Cross-sectional mediational analyses indicated that for families living at the poverty threshold, family processes fully mediated the effect of average income over the study period on social behavior but only partially mediated its effect on cognitive-linguistic development. The strength of these associations diminished as average income exceeded the poverty threshold. That is, income had a greater impact on the family functioning and development of poor children than of nonpoor children.

Transition Practices: Findings from a National Survey of Kindergarten Teachers

designed to overcome the discontinuities that may disThe “ready school” movement is attempting to shift rupt children’s learning and development” (p. 9). Alnational attention away from children’s readiness for though high-quality experiences prior to the beginning school and onto schools’ readiness for incoming kinderof school and a high-quality kindergarten program are gartners (National Education Goals Panel, 1998). One critical to child success, some attention must also be feature of “ready schools” is that they engage in pracgiven to the discontinuities between the settings. Rimmtices that are effective in helping children and families Kaufman and Pianta (2000) conclude that the system of as they make the transition into kindergarten. “Ready relationships among social contexts (including teachers, schools,” according to Pianta, Cox, Taylor, and Early parents, and preschool care providers) is a critical pre(1999), have three characteristics: (a) they reach out, dictor of successful transitions. Effective communicalinking families, preschool settings, and communities tion and regular contact among the various social conwith schools; (b) they reach backward in time, making texts engender connectedness and flexibility, thereby connections before the first day of school, and (c) they promoting an optimal transition. reach with appropriate intensity. The practices that Pianta et al. (1999) used the National Center for teachers employ as they help children and families make Early Development and Learning’s (NCEDL) Transition the transition to school are one important aspect of the Practices Survey, a nationally representative survey of school’s readiness for the incoming children. Thus, unkindergarten teachers, to describe the specific practices derstanding the school, teacher, and classroom characteachers use in facilitating the transition to kindergarten teristics that are linked to optimal transition practices is and the barriers they perceive to additional transition important as educators work to improve transitions for practices. They found that while almost all teachers reyoung children. This paper aims to elucidate these imported some practices aimed at facilitating children’s portant links. transitions into kindergarten, practices that would be Information is currently lacking to inform us as to most effective—those that reach out, backward in time, which practices are most beneficial in aiding children as and with appropriate intensity—are relatively rare. they make this transition; however, there are some Group-oriented practices occurring after the beginning strong, theoretically based indications. Love, Logue, of the school year (e.g., open houses) are the most comTrudeau, and Thayer (1992) argue that key ingredients mon, while practices that involve one-to-one contact to a successful transition are “activities and events (over with children and families and those occurring prior to

Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads

Vagal reactivity and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) were assessed in infants (M age = 13.55 months) and their mothers during the Strange Situation Paradigm (SSP) to investigate differences in physiological responses in a sample of insecure-avoidant and securely-attached dyads (N = 132). Infants classified as insecure-avoidant had significantly higher vagal withdrawal during the SSP and higher sAA overall, suggesting that the avoidant attachment pattern is associated with a greater allostatic load. During separation episodes of the SSP, all mothers showed significant vagal withdrawal, suggesting greater attempts at regulation. During the last reunion, typically the most stressful episode for infants, mothers of secure infants showed greater vagal withdrawal than mothers of insecure-avoidant infants, suggesting greater attempts by these mothers at interactive repair. Results for mothers and infants supported the allostatic load theory.

Gene-Environment Contributions to the Development of Infant Vagal Reactivity: The Interaction of Dopamine and Maternal Sensitivity

This study investigated dopamine receptor genes (DRD2 and DRD4) and maternal sensitivity as predictors of infant respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and RSA reactivity, purported indices of vagal tone and vagal regulation, in a challenge task at 3, 6, and 12 months in 173 infant-mother dyads. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) revealed that at 3 and 6 months, RSA withdrawal in response to maternal separation was greater (suggesting expected physiological regulation) in infants without the DRD2 risk allele than those with the risk allele. At 12 months, infants with the risk allele who were also exposed to maternal sensitivity showed levels of RSA withdrawal comparable to infants who were not at genetic risk. Findings demonstrate the importance of developmental analysis of gene-environment interaction.

Affect dysregulation in the mother-child relationship in the toddler years: Antecedents and consequences

The purpose of this study was to examine child, maternal, and family antecedents of childrens early affect dysregulation within the mother-child relationship and later cognitive and socioemotional correlates of affect dysregulation. Childrens affect dysregulation at 24 and 36 months was defined in the context of mother-child interactions in semistructured play and toy cleanup. Dyads were classified as dysregulated at each age based on high negative affect. Affect dysregulation was associated with less maternal sensitivity and stimulation, more maternal depressive symptoms, and lower family income over the first 36 months of life. Children with early negative mood, lower Bayley Mental Development Index scores and insecure-avoidant (15 months) or insecure-resistant attachment classifications (36 months) were more likely to be in an affect-dysregulated group. Controlling for family and child variables, affect-dysregulated children had more problematic cognitive, social, and behavioral outcomes at 54 months, kindergarten, and first grade. The findings are discussed in terms of the early role played by parents in assisting children with affect regulation, the reciprocal nature of parent-child interactions, and the contribution of affect regulation to childrens later cognitive, social, and behavioral competence.

Associations between Marital Distress and Work Loss in a National Sample.

This study presents analyses of data from the National Comorbidity Survey to assess the extent to which problems within marriage spill over to produce work loss. Results indicate that marital distress is positively associated with work loss-particularly among men in their first 10 years of marriage. Based on the average earnings of participants, work loss associated with marital problems translates into a loss of approximately

Bidirectional genetic and environmental influences on mother and child behavior: The family system as the unit of analyses

6.8 billion per year. These findings suggest that family interventions targeted at the prevention of marital problems may result in important psychosocial and economic benefits for business and society. HOWARD J. MARKMAN University of Denver* MARTHA COX University of North Carolina** SCOTT STANLEY University of Denver* RONALD C. KESSLER Harvard Medical School*** *Psychology Department, University of Denver, 2460 South Vine Street, Denver, CO 80208. **Frank Porter Graham Child Development Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB#8180, 105 Smith Level Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. ***Department of Health Care Policy, Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Parcel B, Ist Floor, Boston, MA 02115. Key Words: marital distress, marriage, sex differences, work productivity. Although little research has been focused directly on the way families influence work productivity (Crouter, 1984), evidence from research on the interface between work and family (Eckenrode & Gore, 1990; Moen & Dempster-McClain, 1987) and on determinants of productivity at work (Friedman, 1991; Steers & Rhodes, 1978; Voydanoff, 1980) and from clinical practice with distressed married couples (Stanley & Markman, 1995) suggests that problems at home may affect performance on the job and vice versa. To understand the interconnections of home and work, we must recognize that these influences may operate in both directions. Experiences and stresses at home may influence behavior in the workplace, and experiences in the workplace may influence behavior at home (Crouter, 1984; Eckenrode & Gore, 1990; Kanter, 1977). Though it is difficult to disentangle these reciprocal associations, information concerning linkages between problems in the family and worker productivity is important in considering the social costs of family instability and the cost-effectiveness of programs to increase family stability. The purpose of this study is to present analyses of data from the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS; Kessler et al., 1994) to assess the extent to which problems within marriage spill over to create problems at work. Specifically, the major aim of this article is to estimate the costs of marital distress in terms of reduced job productivity or work loss and to discuss the potential psychosocial and economic benefits of family interventions targeted at the prevention of these costs. MARITAL DISTRESS AND WORK PRODUCTIVITY Although few studies have explicitly examined the effects of home and family factors on work experiences and work productivity, marital distress has been associated with a variety of negative consequences. Marital problems have been linked to mental health problems (Beach, Smith, & Fincham, 1994; Coie et al., 1993). Marital conflict also has been associated with impaired immune function among adults (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 1993) and slower rates of recovery from a variety of physical health problems (Schmaling & Sher, in press), outcomes that, in turn, have clearly established impacts on worker productivity and absenteeism (e.g., Clark, 1983; Hendrix, Steel, & Schultz, 1987). Consistent with this evidence that marital distress has negative effects on multiple critical life domains, it is plausible that marital distress also might have important consequences for work productivity. Moreover, if marital distress does affect work loss, corporations may find that employee assistance programs that promote family stability are a cost-efficient means of maintaining and even improving productivity. …