Giovanni Innocenti

New Frontiers in Sport Training: Genetics and Artistic Gymnastics

Abstract Morucci, G, Punzi, T, Innocenti, G, Gulisano, M, Ceroti, M, and Pacini, S. New frontiers in sport training: Genetics and artistic gymnastics. J Strength Cond Res 28(2): 459–466, 2014—The increasing understanding of the genetic influences in sport has prompted an association study between the athletic performances and the polymorphisms of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), the &agr;-actinin-3 (ACTN3), and the vitamin D receptor genes. The details of these gene polymorphisms can provide useful information to improve and plan new modern training programs for elite athletes. Eighty Italian male high level gymnasts were trained and tested for gymnastic-specific exercises and tested in all the mens artistic gymnastic apparatus (floor, pommel horse, rings, vault, parallel bars, and horizontal bar), and then genotyped. The training parameters of volume, intensity, and density of each gymnast were periodically measured during the season in each apparatus from the tests performed, and the seasonal average values were calculated. Gene polymorphisms were determined by polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism assay and studied in association with the performance results. The performances of ACE II gymnasts were significantly lower than that of the ACE ID/DD gymnasts in the apparatus expressing power features, confirming the predisposition of these athletes toward power-oriented sport. Gymnasts with ACTN3 RR/RX genotypes did not show a predisposition to the power-oriented apparatus, having worse performances compared with that of the ACTN3 XX gymnasts. Similarly, gymnasts with ACE II + ACTN3 RR/RX combined genotypes showed lower performances in comparison with that of the other gymnasts. Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms showed no significant association with the athletic performances. Because ACE insertion/deletion (I/D) and ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms heavily affect the physical performance of elite male gymnasts, the Italian Gymnastic Federation trainers have started to customize the current high-level training programs.

Effects of resistance training on jumping performance in pre adolescent rhythmic gymnasts: a randomized controlled study

The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of two different resistance training programs on lower limb explosive and reactive strength in young female athletes. Fifty seven rhythmic gymnasts were randomly assigned to unspecific resistance training with dumbbells (12 repetition maximum squats) (n = 19; age = 12.0 +/- 1.8 years) or to specific resistance training with weighted belts (6% of body mass; n = 18; age = 11.9 +/- 1.0 years). Squat jump test, counter movement jump test, hopping test, flexibility of the hip, and anthropometric measures were assessed before and after six weeks training. The main result was that both unspecific resistance training and specific resistance training protocols positively affected the jumping performance, with an increase of the lower limb explosive strength of 6-7%, with no side effects. Counter movement jump flight time increased significantly (p < 0.01) while hopping test ground contact time significantly decreased (p < 0.01). No significant differences were detected among groups for flexibility, body mass, calf and thigh circumferences. Therefore, six weeks of resistance training that integrates different elements of rhythmic gymnastics training enhance jumping ability in young female athletes.

Genetic and biochemical markers in physical exercise assessment

An excessive physical activity could stress the organism determining unbalanced hormonal orders that can negatively affect the state of optimal health and therefore the sporting output. In particular during physical exercise the free salivary Cortisol concentration increases with the intensity of the exercise followed by an increase of the free Testosterone. On this basis, there is the possibility the determine if the program of preset physical exercise evokes an abnormal reaction of adaptation of the organism. Since physical exercise and athletic performance are strongly related to individual genetic traits, in this study we evaluated the possibility of customize the athletic training on the basis both of genetic and of levels of salivary markers involved in physical stress. Eighteen male gymnasts were genotyped for the following sport involved gene polymorphisms: Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE - I/D), α-actinin 3 (ACTN3 - RR/RX) and Vitamin D Receptor (VDR - BsmI, FokI, TaqI, ApaI). Salivary levels of Cortisol and free Testosterone were measured before and after a standard training session by saliva tests (Grifols, Italy). From our results emerged the possibility of planning the training session avoiding a stress related overtraining and, at the same time, adjusting the athletic training on the basis of individual genetic profile.