Gopal B. Thapa

Sustainability of ecological and conventional agricultural systems in Bangladesh: an assessment based on environmental, economic and social perspectives

Abstract The sustainability of conventional agriculture in Bangladesh is under threat from the continuous degradation of land and water resources, and from declining yields due to indiscriminate use of agro-chemicals. An NGO is pursuing efforts to promote ecological agriculture with emphasis on better use of on-farm resources and the reduction of external inputs. This paper examines the sustainability of two production systems in terms of their environmental soundness, economic viability and social acceptability based on empirical data collected through a household survey, soil sample analysis, observations and discussions with key informants. Twelve indicators were selected to evaluate sustainability. Significant differences were found between the two systems in crop diversification, soil fertility management, pests and diseases management, and use of agro-chemicals. However, no significant variations were found in other indicators such as land-use pattern, crop yield and stability, risk and uncertainties, and food security. Although crop yield and financial return were found to be slightly higher in the conventional system, the economic return and value addition per unit of land did not show any difference. The findings suggest that ecological agriculture has a tendency towards becoming ecologically, economically and socially more sound than conventional agriculture, as it requires considerably less agro-chemicals, adds more organic matter to the soil, provides balanced food, and requires higher local inputs without markedly compromising output and financial benefits. Broad-policy measures, including the creation of mass awareness of adverse health effects of agrochemical-based products, are outlined for the promotion of ecological agriculture.

Sustainability Analysis of Ecological and Conventional Agricultural Systems in Bangladesh

Summary. — This paper examines the sustainability of conventional and ecological agricultural systems based on their environmental soundness, economic viability and social acceptability. Significant differences were found in crop diversification, soil fertility management, pests and diseases management, and use of agrochemicals. No remarkable variations were found in land-use pattern, crop yield and stability, financial and economic returns, risk and uncertainties, or food security. The findings suggest that ecological agriculture is relatively more sustainable, and it could be an economically and environmentally viable alternative to the conventional agricultural system. Ecological agriculture could become an alternative if market distortions created by subsidies were removed, and financial benefits were provided to resource-conserving farmers along with necessary support through extension, credit, research, and marketing. 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Poverty and Resource Degradation Under Different Common Forest Resource Management Systems in the Mountains of Nepal

Different types of forest management systems in the study area are analyzed, followed by an assessment of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) use systems and collection practices under the government and community-managed systems, and their implications for the status of forests and NTFPs. Confronted with severe poverty arising from small landholdings and scarce nonfarming employment opportunities, villagers in the upper portion of the watershed have benefited considerably from the income derived from NTFPs. Findings indicate that various components of a common forest resource can be managed differently and undergo degradation at different rates. NTFPs are undergoing degradation more seriously than timber under both government and community forest management systems. However, NTFP degradation is more serious in government forests than in community forests. Such degradation is due primarily to a lack of proper institutional arrangements, including the lack of a comprehensive government policy framework for sustainable use and management of NTFPs.

Impact of agroforestry intervention on soil fertility and farm income under the subsistence farming system of the middle hills, Nepal

Abstract Practices that minimize the rate of soil degradation, improve soil fertility, increase crop yields and raise farm income are key to sustaining agricultural productivity in the hills of Nepal. Against this background, this study examined the impact of an agroforestry intervention project on soil fertility and farm income based on a sample of subsistence farm households in Dhading district. The project was implemented in 1993/1994 to increase fodder production through the promotion of agroforestry. A total of 223 households (82 project and 141 non-project) were interviewed during May 1998–October 1998 to collect information on production and farmer’s perception toward agroforesty’s impact on soil fertility. Soil samples taken from both project and non-project areas were also analyzed to examine agroforestry’s impact on various soil nutrients. The soil analysis revealed that differences in amount of organic matter, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium observed between the soils under agroforestry system and the conventional system were not significant at the 0.05 level. The benefit–cost analysis showed that the agricultural system with agroforestry was more profitable than the conventional system. The results also showed that the introduction of multipurpose trees, such as mulberry ( Morus alba ) for sericulture could further enhance the profitability of agroforestry-based system. Thus, in the hills, agroforestry has potential for enhancing food production and farmers’ economic conditions in a sustainable manner through its positive contributions to soil fertility and household income.

Land use, land management and environment in a subsistence mountain economy in Nepal

In view of the growing concern about the effects of human activities on the mountain environment of Nepal, this study examined the land use and management systems and their environmental effects with reference to a small watershed. It was shown that farmers had used cropping diversification, mixed cropping, cropping intensification and agroforestry to cope with the problem of food shortage arising from their marginal landholdings. They had terraced virtually all of their farm plots and applied compost/manure regularly, though in inadequate amounts, to control soil erosion and maintain land productivity. Nevertheless, farm lands on the ridges were undergoing unsustainable rates of soil erosion and soil nutrients depletion due to frequent hoeing and ploughing of lands, application of inadequate amounts of organic fertilisers, lack of mulching, and fallowing of lands for too short a period and without any vegetation cover. Soil erosion was not an acute problem in river valleys, as lands were flat and terraced, but lands were undergoing degradation owing to an unsustainable rate of removal of soil nutrients. Non-arable agriculture using biological soil fertilisation, including legume cultivation and compost application, could conserve soil in suitable locations and sustain the mountain environment.

A tragedy of non-timber forest resources in the mountain commons of Nepal

There is increasing degradation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the mountains of Nepal. It has been proposed that different components of a common property resource (CPR) do not undergo degradation at the same rate, as they are not managed in the same way under different types of property rights regimes. To examine this, information was collected through a survey of 324 households, community resource assessment ranking and group discussion in a small mountain watershed of Nepal. The study analysed NTFP collection and management practices under government and community forest management systems, and impact of these practices on the status of forest and NTFPs. The analysis based on peoples perception revealed that NTFPs were being depleted more rapidly than timber components in both types of forest. The pace of depletion was, however, considerably lower in community forests, as these forests were accessible only to the relevant forest user group members. Depletion of NTFPs was due primarily to the lack of proper institutional arrangements, including the lack of a comprehensive government policy framework, for sustainable use and management of NTFPs.

Status and management of watersheds in the Upper Pokhara Valley, Nepal.

Contributing to the debate on the causes of Himalayan environmental degradation, the status and management of four watersheds in the Upper Pokhara Valley were studied using information available from land use analysis, household surveys conducted in 1989 and 1992, deliberations held with villagers, and field observations. Accordingly, areas under forests and grazing lands were found being depleted at relatively high rates between 1957 and 1978 due mainly to the government policy of increasing national revenue by expansion of agricultural lands, nationalization of forests, steadily growing population, and dwindling household economy. Despite the steady growth of population, this process had remarkably slackened since 1978, owing primarily to remaining forests being located in very, steep slopes and implementation of the community forestry program. Forests with relatively sparase tree density, however, and grazing lands in the vicinity of settlements have been undergoing degradation due to fuelwood and fodder collection and livestock grazing. In many instances, this is aggravated by weak resource management institutions. Being particularly aware of the economic implication of land degradation, farmers have adopted assorted land management practices. Still a substantial proportion ofbari lands in the hill slopes is vulnerable to accelerating degradation, as the arable cropping system is being practiced there as well. The perpetuation of the local subsistence economy is certain to lead, to a further deterioration of the socioeconomic and environmental conditions of watersheds. To facilitate environmental conservation and ecorestructuring for sustainable development, a broad watershed management strategy is outlined with focus on alleviating pressure on natural resources.

Evaluation of the livestock carrying capacity of land resources in the hills of Nepal based on total digestive nutrient analysis.

Abstract Land degradation and poverty caused by traditional arable agriculture have been serious problems in the ecologically fragile and economically backward mountains of Nepal. There is a prospect to address both of these problems to some extent by promoting livestock raising. However, a large livestock population exceeding the carrying capacity of land resources will risk undermining the sustainability and productivity of these resources. On the basis of these concerns, this study analyzes the carrying capacity of land resources under on-going and improved management systems based on total digestive nutrient (TDN) demand and supply situation in the study area. Results of analyses revealed that under the current type of management system, land resources in Shyangja district could provide the required amount of TDN to 147,735 livestock standard units (LSU), whereas the total number of LSU had already reached 203,510 as of 1996/97. Provided improvements are made in forest and grazing-land management as well as in crop production and agroforestry systems in line with assumptions made, land resources in the study area will be able to accommodate additional 6408 LSU on top of existing stock by the year 2001/02 and 63,113 LSU by the year 2006/07.

Adoption of agricultural land management technologies by smallholder farmers in the Jos Plateau, Nigeria

Against a background of growing concern about the adverse effects of agricultural land degradation due to accelerated soil erosion, nutrient depletion and high population pressure, farmers in the Jos Plateau, Nigeria have adopted biological and structural land management practices, though the degree of adoption of such practices varies from one farm household to another. This study, based on a survey of 150 farm households, employed a stepwise multiple linear regression model to analyse the factors significantly influencing the adoption of land management technologies. The results of the analysis revealed four variables, namely, extension service, agricultural labour force, accelerated soil erosion and out-migration, explaining nearly 90% of the variation in the range of land management technologies adopted. The first three of these variables have positive influences on adoption. Extension service appeared to be the strongest, impacting on skills in the agricultural labour force. Policy recommendations are made in line with the findings of the analysis.

Sustainability Analysis of Ecotourism on Yao Noi Island, Thailand

This paper examines the sustainability of ecotourism on Yao Noi Island based on nine indicators covering environmental, economic and sociocultural dimensions. Required data were collected through a survey of 178 households using a structured questionnaire and participatory appraisal methods. The findings revealed a majority of local people across income brackets benefited from the employment opportunities generated by ecotourism. However, the condition of the natural and environmental resources that served as a foundation of ecotourism was gradually degrading. Regarding social sustainability, locals had taken opportunities to strengthen their capability to promote ecotourism. However, social vulnerability has resulted from increased land grabbing and investment by outsiders, and encroachment by external cultures into the unique Muslim culture. It suggests ecotourism on Yao Noi Island could be sustainable if appropriate interventions were made to ensure the effective conservation of environmental and natural resources and to protect the landownership of private property by local people.