Graham J. Fishburne

Imagery ability and the acquisition and retention of movements

In this study, we examined the relationship between imagery ability, as measured by the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ), and the acquisition, retention, and reacquisition of movements. Based on their MIQ scores, 10 subjects were selected for the following imagery groups: high visual/high kinesthetic (HH), high visual/low kinesthetic (HL), and low visual/low kinesthetic (LL). The subjects learned four movements to a criterion level. Before each trial, subjects kinesthetically imaged the movement about to be produced. Following each acquisition trial, subjects were provided visual feedback. The acquisition phase was followed by a 2-day retention interval, a retention test consisting of three trials on each movement (no feedback provided), and a reacquisition phase. The HH group acquired the movements in the least number of trials, the LL group required the greatest number of trials, and the HL group required an intermediate number of trials. The data for the reacquisition phase showed the same trend. There was only weak evidence for a relationship between imagery ability and the retention of the movements. These findings support the position that high imagery ability facilitates the acquisition, but probably not the short term retention, of movements.

Playing with confidence: The relationship between imagery use and self-confidence and self-efficacy in youth soccer players

Abstract Confidence has been one of the most consistent factors in distinguishing the successful from the unsuccessful athletes (Gould, Weiss, & Weinberg, 1981) and Bandura (1997) proposed that imagery is one way to enhance confidence. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between imagery use and confidence in soccer (football) players. The participants included 122 male and female soccer athletes ages 11–14 years participating in both house/recreation (n = 72) and travel/competitive (n = 50) levels. Athletes completed three questionnaires; one measuring the frequency of imagery use, one assessing generalised self-confidence, and one assessing self-efficacy in soccer. A series of regression analyses found that Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery was a signifant predictor of self-confidence and self-efficacy in both recreational and competitive youth soccer players. More specifically, MG-M imagery accounted for between 40 and 57% of the variance for both self-confidence and self-efficacy with two other functions (MG-A and MS) contributing marginally in the self-confidence regression for recreational athletes. These findings suggest that if a youth athlete, regardless of competitive level, wants to increase his/her self-confidence or self-efficacy through the use of imagery, the MG-M function should be emphasised.

Using cognitive general imagery to improve soccer strategies

Abstract Athletes use imagery for both cognitive and motivational functions (Paivio 1985) The cognitive function involves the rehearsal of skills (cognitive specific) and strategies of play (cognitive general). To date most of the imagery research has been concerned with skill rehearsal (cognitive specific), and there have been no controlled studies investigating the effects of cognitive general imagery on the learning and performance of game plans or strategies of play. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a cognitive general imagery intervention on three distinct soccer strategies in a young elite female soccer team. Participants were 13 competitive female soccer players with a mean age of 12.54 years. Imagery scores were determined via the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) prior to, during, and after the intervention. A staggered multiple baseline design across behaviors was used to evaluate the effect of imagery on three distinct soccer strategies (defending a direct free kick, taking a direct free kick, and defending a corner kick) which were introduced at weeks 2, 4 and 6. Results indicated that cognitive general and cognitive specific imagery use as well as motivational general-arousal imagery use significantly increased from baseline to post intervention. Based on the present studys findings, the execution of soccer strategies was not significantly enhanced with the implementation of a cognitive general intervention. Additional research should be conducted in order to reach clearer conclusions that will have implications for young athletes and their learning strategies.

The Sport Imagery Questionnaire for Children (SIQ-C)

Athletes of all ages report using imagery extensively to enhance their sport performance. The Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) was developed to assess cognitive and motivational imagery used by adult athletes. No such instrument currently exists to measure the use of imagery by young athletes. The aim of the present research was to modify the Sport Imagery Questionnaire for use with children aged 7–14 years. This was accomplished through three phases. Across these phases, evidence was generated showing adequate factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity and reliability of the instrument, which is termed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire—Childrens Version. In addition, the relationships of scores on the Sport Imagery Questionnaire—Childrens Version to gender and age were examined. While it was found that male and female athletes employed imagery to about the same extent, there were some age group differences in the use of imagery.

The content of imagery use in youth sport

Abstract The purpose of the present study was to investigate the content of young athletes’ imagery use. The participants were 7–8 (n = 24), 9–10 (n = 30), 11–12 (n = 35), and 13–14 (n = 21) year‐old male and female athletes competing in both team and individual sports. Sixteen focus groups, two for each age category and gender, were used as the method of data collection. Each focus group consisted of 6–8 participants grouped by gender and age and was structured to assess what they image in sport. Emerging from the focus groups were five content categories of imagery including imagery sessions, the effectiveness of imagery, the nature of imagery, the surroundings, and the type of imagery. These categories support previous imagery research conducted with adult athletes (Munroe, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000). Imagery with respect to age and gender are discussed.

Mental Imagery Research in Physical Education

The purpose of this article is to present a framework for researching mental imagery use in school-based physical education. Mental imagery use has been researched quite extensively over the past 50 years in the areas of motor learning and sport psychology. Much has been learned regarding the benefits of using mental imagery to improve learning and performance. This article has drawn parallels between school-based physical education and the areas of sport psychology and motor learning. Based on findings in the areas of motor learning and sport psychology, and the similarities drawn between school-based physical education and these two areas, it could be expected that mental imagery use in school-based physical education has the potential to produce many benefits in learning and performance for both students and teachers. However, to date there has been very little research conducted with regard to mental imagery use and physical education. This article provides a research framework identifying questions that need to be addressed in order to more fully understand the potential imagery use has for both students and teachers in school-based physical education.

Motor Short-Term Memory: Some Considerations

Two experiments relating to the short-term retention of movement information are described. The first experiment deals with the influence of context effects. Using a traditional linear positioning task, subjects moved to two defined target locations (anchor and criterion) on each trial. The effect of anchor movements on the reproduction accuracy of the criterion movement were dependent upon both the length of the anchor movement and the length of the criterion movement. Anchors longer and shorter than the criterion movement caused directional biasing toward the magnitude of the anchor movement (assimilation), whereas very long and very short anchor movements caused biasing in a direction away from she magnitude of the anchor movement (contrast). In addition, conditions were found where assimilation and contrast effects were working in opposition to decrease anchor biasing effects. It is put forward that the perceptual biasing effects of contrast he considered a para-memory (non-retention related) factor, as contrast effects influence criterion movement reproduction accuracy but are not related to motor short-term memory processes. The second experiment considered the effectiveness of a recognition paradigm known by the acronym KAK, to detect directional biasing effects in a movement context situation. The KAK recognition paradigm proved effective in detecting directional biasing due to anchor stimuli.

Context effects in movement recognition

Abstract An experiment was performed in which ten subjects made comparative judgements of two objectively equally long movement lengths. Additional movements, known as anchor movements, occured before, between, or after the comparison pair in order to decide whether such anchor movements would operate proactively (i.e., producing an effect on the reception of the subsequent stimulus) or retroactively (i.e., affecting the memory trace of the preceding stimulus). The results are interpreted to mean anchor movements act retroactively.

The Planning, Organization and Execution of Serially Ordered Movement Patterns: A Coding Perspective

The subjective organization and execution of a serially ordered movement pattern was the focus of this experiment. A step tracking task was combined with a probe reaction time task in order to investigate the processes that control the planning, organization and execution of two movement patterns. One being an experimentally structured pattern of movements, while the other was a pattern of movements that had no specific organization inherent within the list. The results suggest that the planning and organization of certain experimentally defined movement sequences are governed by some underlying rule structure, ft also appears that those same movement sequences are not controlled by similar structures during their execution.