Graham McDowell

The Dynamic Multiscale Nature of Climate Change Vulnerability: An Inuit Harvesting Example

This article advances a vulnerability framework to understand how climatic risks and change are experienced and responded to by Inuit harvesters using a case study from Iqaluit, Nunavut. The article makes important contributions to methodological design in vulnerability studies, emphasizing the importance of longitudinal study design, real-time observations of human–environment interactions, community-based monitoring, and mixed methods. Fieldwork spanned five years, during which sixty-four semistructured interviews were conducted and historical records examined to develop an understanding of the processes and conditions affecting vulnerability. A local land use monitoring team was established, collecting ∼22,000 km of land use Global Positioning System (GPS) data and engaging in biweekly interviews (more than 100) on exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. This was complemented by analysis of instrumental data on sea ice and climate conditions. Results indicate that sea ice conditions are changing rapidly and affecting trail conditions, safety, and access to harvesting grounds. GPS data and biweekly interviews document real-time adaptations, with traditional knowledge and land-based skills, resource use flexibility, and mobility underpinning significant adaptability, including utilizing new areas, modifying trail routes, and taking advantage of an extended open water season. Sociospatial reorganization following resettlement in the 1950s and 1960s, however, has created dependency on external conditions, has reduced the flexibility of harvesting activities, and has affected knowledge systems. Within the context of these “slow” variables, current responses that are effective in moderating vulnerability could undermine adaptive capacity in the long term, representing overspecialized adaptations, creating the potential for further loss of response diversity and flexibility, and engendering potential downstream effects, creating trajectories of maladaptation. These findings challenge previous research that has argued that current resilience of the Inuit socioecological system is indicative of high adaptive capacity to future change and indicates that climate change might pose more serious risks to the harvesting sector than previously assumed.

Climate-related hydrological change and human vulnerability in remote mountain regions: a case study from Khumbu, Nepal

Inhabitants of mountainous regions in least developed countries are recognized to be among the most vulnerable to climate change globally. Despite this, human dimensions work is in its infancy in mountain regions where we have limited understanding of who is vulnerable (or adaptable), to what stresses, and why. This study develops a baseline understanding of vulnerability to climate-related hydrological changes in the mountainous Khumbu region of eastern Nepal. Using a vulnerability approach, 80 interviews combining fixed and open-ended questions were conducted in four communities representing the geographic and livelihood variability of the region. The study identifies four region-wide vulnerabilities currently affecting residents: reduced water access for household uses, declining crop yields, reduced water access for meeting the high water demands of tourists, and reduced hydro-electricity generation. These vulnerabilities are widespread among the population but arrange spatially as a function of varying exposure-sensitivity to hydrological change, livelihood opportunities, and access to foreign financial assistance. Our findings indicate that precipitation change (not glacial change) is the greatest biophysical driver of vulnerability.

Community-level climate change vulnerability research: trends, progress, and future directions

This study systematically identifies, characterizes, and critically evaluates community-level climate change vulnerability assessments published over the last 25 years (n = 274). We find that while the field has advanced considerably in terms of conceptual framing and methodological approaches, key shortcomings remain in how vulnerability is being studied at the community-level. We argue that vulnerability research needs to more critically engage with the following: methods for evaluating future vulnerability, the relevance of vulnerability research for decision-making, interdependencies between social and ecological systems, attention to researcher / subject power dynamics, critical interpretation of key terms, and consideration of the potentially positive opportunities presented by a changing climate. Addressing these research needs is necessary for generating knowledge that supports climate-affected communities in navigating the challenges and opportunities ahead.

Adaptation to climate change in glaciated mountain regions

Understanding of the human dimensions of climate change (HDCC) in glaciated mountain regions is limited by a deficit in systematically collated information on where, to what stressors, by whom, at what scale, and with what effect adaptation is occurring. This paper presents a systematic literature review of the recent English language peer-reviewed scholarship on adaptation in glaciated mountain regions. 4050 potentially relevant articles were examined, with 36 included for full review. Results indicate that scholarly investigation into adaptation in glaciated mountains is presently limited to only 40 % of countries with alpine glaciation. Seventy-four discrete adaptation initiatives were identified, with most occurring in Peru (28 %), Nepal (22 %) and India (17 %). Many documented adaptations were initiated in response to intersecting stressors related to cryospheric change and socio-economic development; were autonomous and initiated in reaction to experienced climatic stimuli; and were carried out at the individual, family, or community scale. The study contributes to an emerging literature tracking on-the-ground adaptation processes and outcomes, and identifies a need to raise the profile of human adaptation in glaciated mountain regions within the HDCC scholarship. A research agenda for addressing key knowledge gaps and questions is developed, providing a framework for future investigation.

The state of climate change adaptation in the Arctic

The Arctic climate is rapidly changing, with wide ranging impacts on natural and social systems. A variety of adaptation policies, programs and practices have been adopted to this end, yet our understanding of if, how, and where adaptation is occurring is limited. In response, this paper develops a systematic approach to characterize the current state of adaptation in the Arctic. Using reported adaptations in the English language peer reviewed literature as our data source, we document 157 discrete adaptation initiatives between 2003 and 2013. Results indicate large variations in adaptation by region and sector, dominated by reporting from North America, particularly with regards to subsistence harvesting by Inuit communities. Few adaptations were documented in the European and Russian Arctic, or have a focus on the business and economy, or infrastructure sectors. Adaptations are being motivated primarily by the combination of climatic and non-climatic factors, have a strong emphasis on reducing current vulnerability involving incremental changes to existing risk management processes, and are primarily initiated and led at the individual/community level. There is limited evidence of trans-boundary adaptations or initiatives considering potential cross-scale/sector impacts.

Integrated Approaches to Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction in Dynamic Socio-cryospheric Systems

Abstract Cryospheric hazards in mountain ranges, at high latitudes, and around ice-covered volcanoes can adversely affect people by generating disasters such as glacial lake outburst floods, rock-ice landslides, lahars, and iceberg instability, as well as risks related to glacier runoff variability. These dangers are not simply biophysical; rather they are environmental events embedded within dynamic socioecological systems. To recognize the specific social and biophysical elements of cryospheric risks and hazards, in particular, this chapter introduces the concept of the socio-cryospheric system. To improve adaptive capacity and effectively grapple with diverse risks and hazards in socio-cryospheric systems, integrated approaches that span the natural sciences, engineering and planning, and the social sciences are needed. The approach outlined here involves three elements: (1) understanding cryospheric risks and hazards through scientific investigation and the accumulation of environmental knowledge regarding the biophysical basis of the hazardous stimuli; (2) preventing the natural events from occurring through risk management and engineering strategies; and (3) reducing susceptibility to harm by addressing the socioeconomic, political, and cultural factors that influence vulnerability to risks, hazards, and disasters. This chapter analyzes several case studies of particular hazards (in particular places), including glacier and glacial lake hazards in Peru (Cordillera Blanca and Santa Teresa) and Nepal; volcano-ice hazards in Colombia and Iceland; glacier runoff and melt water-related hazards in Nepal and Peru; and coastal hazards in Greenland. These case studies help illustrate achievements and limitations of the three-pronged approach to adaptation, while revealing opportunities for greater symbiosis among scientific/knowledge-based, risk management/engineering-based, and vulnerability-based approaches to adaptation and disaster risk reduction in socio-cryospheric systems.

Community-based adaptation research in the Canadian Arctic

Community‐based adaptation (CBA) has emerged over the last decade as an approach to empowering communities to plan for and cope with the impacts of climate change. While such approaches have been widely advocated, few have critically examined the tensions and challenges that CBA brings. Responding to this gap, this article critically examines the use of CBA approaches with Inuit communities in Canada. We suggest that CBA holds significant promise to make adaptation research more democratic and responsive to local needs, providing a basis for developing locally appropriate adaptations based on local/indigenous and Western knowledge. Yet, we argue that CBA is not a panacea, and its common portrayal as such obscures its limitations, nuances, and challenges. Indeed, if uncritically adopted, CBA can potentially lead to maladaptation, may be inappropriate in some instances, can legitimize outside intervention and control, and may further marginalize communities. We identify responsibilities for researchers engaging in CBA work to manage these challenges, emphasizing the centrality of how knowledge is generated, the need for project flexibility and openness to change, and the importance of ensuring partnerships between researchers and communities are transparent. Researchers also need to be realistic about what CBA can achieve, and should not assume that research has a positive role to play in community adaptation just because it utilizes participatory approaches. WIREs Clim Change 2016, 7:175–191. doi: 10.1002/wcc.376 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Mountain Ice and Water: Investigations of the Hydrologic Cycle in Alpine Environments

This volume features a diverse set of chapters that engage with both environmental and human dimensions of rapidly changing mountain systems. When compiling the volume, editors Greg Greenwood (former Executive Director of the Mountain Research Initiative) and Jack Shroder (Emeritus Professor of Geography and Geology at the University of Nebraska at Omaha) considered papers presented at the ‘‘Mountains of Our Future Earth’’ conference held in Perth, Scotland, in 2015. In particular, they endeavored to profile research from the conference that was well aligned with key Future Earth focal areas, namely, Dynamic Planet, Global Sustainable Development, and Transformations Towards Sustainability. The 9 chapters engage with a variety of geographies, issues, and methods, in several cases profiling regions, topics, and research approaches infrequently included in conversations about global change in mountain systems. The Editorial Foreword briefly outlines the rationale and envisioned contributions of the book. Chapter 1 evaluates the role of Drakensberg Escarpment as a water supplier to South Africa, highlighting the disproportionate contribution of the escarpment to downstream water availability. Prudently, however, instead of focusing solely on climaterelated threats to future water supply, the authors argue that downstream water stress is, and will continue to be, closely linked to the nexus of changes in water supply, demand, and land management. They suggest that a holistic, transboundary water governance approach is required to navigate these socioecological complexities. Chapter 2 provides a fascinating assessment of the state of glaciers in Russia; it indicates that ice in the country’s 18 glacierized regions presently covers an area of 3,480,000 km. The authors provide detailed information about the unique glacial environments, monitoring efforts, and research results for each glacierized region and ultimately determine that glaciers in Russia, of all system types, have generally been in decline over the last 100 years. This glaciology-focused chapter mentions but does not substantively evaluate downstream impacts. Chapter 3 focuses on Potentially Harmful Trace Elements (PHTEs) in mountain waters. The authors discuss the sources, transport, and deposition of contaminants in mountain systems, introduce potential impacts on humans and other biota, and highlight the pressing need to know more about the interaction of PHTEs and other drivers of change in mountains (eg climate change). Chapter 4 weaves together insights from historical texts and archeological research to provide a rich history of continuity and change in the Lake Mývatn region of Iceland. After detailing the region’s hydrological, social, and ecological characteristics, the authors interrogate the emergence and consequences of silica mining activity, geothermal energy development, and increasing tourism. In addition to being a wonderful illustration of interdisciplinary research, the chapter convincingly illustrates how awareness of local history can aid the assessments of contemporary water (mis)management. Chapter 5 profiles a detailed study of mountain precipitation and conifer responses in the semiarid Great Basin region of the United States. The authors characterize microscale ecohydrological phenomena across an elevation gradient over a four-year drought period. The study’s discovery of opportunistic responses of conifer species such as bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) to specific hydrometeorological events helps to advance understanding of the adaptability of conifers in semiarid mountain regions. Chapter 6 evaluates the socioeconomic impact of recent hydropower developments on downstream communities in the Teetsa Basin of the eastern Indian Himalayas. The authors discuss effects on livelihoods, education, health, infrastructure, culture, and downstream environments, and they suggest that project impact assessments have not captured many consequential risks (and opportunities) associated with hydropower development. They argue that increased stakeholder engagement in impact assessments is needed to ensure that hydropower developments are more socially and environmentally sustainable. Chapter 7 investigates the effectiveness and distributional consequences of the Dhara Vikas program, a spring replenishment initiative that aimed to increase water availability for communities in the mountains of Sikkim, India. The authors argue that the water stress of highland populations has seen little improvement through the project; already better-off lowland populations benefited most. This outcome mirrors broader social stratifications and calls attention to the inherently social nature of vulnerability to environmental stress. Chapter 8 investigates the spiritual value of water in the Andes, shifting attention away from water as a provisioning service and toward water as a cultural service. The author, in his discussion of the role of mountain water in ritual and divination activities across various regions and cultural groups, argues that the nonmaterial value of water should be considered in conservation planning in the Andes. Chapter 9 Mountain Research and Development (MRD) An international, peer-reviewed open access journal published by the International Mountain Society (IMS) www.mrd-journal.org MountainMedia

Vulnerability and its discontents: the past, present, and future of climate change vulnerability research

The concept of vulnerability is well established in the climate change literature, underpinning significant research effort. The ability of vulnerability research to capture the complexities of climate-society dynamics has been increasingly questioned, however. In this paper, we identify, characterize, and evaluate concerns over the use of vulnerability approaches in the climate change field based on a review of peer-reviewed articles published since 1990 (n = 587). Seven concerns are identified: neglect of social drivers, promotion of a static understanding of human-environment interactions, vagueness about the concept of vulnerability, neglect of cross-scale interactions, passive and negative framing, limited influence on decision-making, and limited collaboration across disciplines. Examining each concern against trends in the literature, we find some of these concerns weakly justified, but others pose valid challenges to vulnerability research. Efforts to revitalize vulnerability research are needed, with priority areas including developing the next generation of empirical studies, catalyzing collaboration across disciplines to leverage and build on the strengths of divergent intellectual traditions involved in vulnerability research, and linking research to the practical realities of decision-making.

Adaptation, Adaptation Science, and the Status of Adaptation in Mountain Regions

This chapter introduces the conceptual foundations of, and core themes within, the climate change adaptation scholarship; outlines common approaches to adaptation science; presents key critiques of how adaptation is conceptualized and examined; and discusses the status of adaptation in upstream-downstream environments. The chapter draws out linkages between adaptation scholarship and mountain-specific socio-economic and environmental conditions. It also addressed an important gap in the broader adaptation scholarship, where there have been few studies characterizing and examining adaptation in mountain regions. Topics covered clarify key conceptual and analytical aspects of climate change adaptation and strengthen rationale for efforts to increase understanding of adaptation in upstream-downstream systems. The chapter also facilitates more informed engagement with subsequent chapters in Climate Change Adaptation Strategies – An Upstream-downstream Perspective.