H.J. Zondag

Overt and covert narcissism in Poland and the Netherlands

This article reports a study of the relation between narcissism as a personality characteristic and the cultural dimension of individualism/collectivism. Participants from a more collectivistic society (Poland; n = 167) were compared with participants from a more individualistic society (The Netherlands; n = 156). Two dimensions of narcissism were distinguished: overt and covert. The cultural tendency for narcissism was measured by comparing average scores on both types of narcissism in both countries, as well as by the meaning that overt and covert narcissism seems to have for psychological well-being. More specifically, the correlations were compared among both types of narcissism and depression and meaning of life. In the Polish sample, the average score on covert narcissism was higher. In the Dutch sample, on the other hand, depression and meaning of life were significantly related to covert narcissism.

Between imposing one’s will and protecting oneself. Narcissism and the meaning of life among Dutch pastors

In contemporary culture, narcissism is an important and common personality trait. This trait is very significant for the meaning people experience in their lives. This article deals with an inquiry into the relationship between narcissism and the meaning of life among pastors. Narcissism is further specified into several dimensions (centripetal narcissism, centrifugal narcissism, isolation and self-satisfaction) and the significance of these dimensions is examined for two central dimensions of the attribution of meaning (frame of reference and fulfilment). The article discusses the significance of the relationship between narcissism and meaning for the professional performance of pastors.

Narcissism and Boredom Revisited: An Exploration of Correlates of Overt and Covert Narcissism among Dutch University Students

This article presents a study of the relationship between narcissism, overt and covert, and seven aspects of boredom, defined as listlessness, drawn out experience of time, depletion, lack of concentration, restlessness, experience seeking, and lack of interest. The survey was conducted using questionnaires administered to 32 men and 177 women. The mean age of male respondents was 30.9 yr. (SD = 11.9), that of female respondents 30.2 yr. (SD = 12.2). In general terms, covert narcissism was found to be positively, and overt narcissism negatively, associated with boredom. The results showed a more complex pattern than was found in previous research into the relationship between narcissism and boredom and suggest that overt and covert narcissism are at opposite ends of the adjustment continuum.

I Just Believe in Me: Narcissism and Religious Coping

This article reports on a study of the relationship between narcissism, as an important personality trait in individualistic societies, and religious styles of coping. We distinguish between two dimensions of narcissism: overt and covert narcissism, and four different styles of religious coping: self-directing, collaborative, deferring and receptive. The study was carried out by inviting 116 students to complete questionnaires about narcissism and religious coping. It revealed a positive correlation between covert narcissism and the collaborative, deferring and receptive styles of religious coping, and a negative correlation between covert narcissism and the self-directing style. Overt narcissism only had a positive correlation with the receptive style. The article discusses in detail the significance of the relationships between narcissism and styles of religious coping.

Still Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door: Narcissism and Prayer

This article reports on a study of the relationship between narcissism, an important personality trait in individualistic societies, and different varieties of prayer. We distinguish between two kinds of narcissism (overt and covert), and four types of prayer (petitionary, religious, meditative and psychological). The study was carried out by inviting 99 students to complete questionnaires about narcissism and prayer. It revealed a positive correlation between covert narcissism and petitionary and religious prayer. Overt narcissism correlates positively with meditative and psychological prayer. The article discusses in detail the significance of the relationships between narcissism and varieties of prayer.

Expressive individualism and religion in the Netherlands

The author presents a study of the relationship between expressive individualism and religiosity. Data were collected from participants in internet forums concerned with New Age and Christian religiosity (N=422). Through factor analysis, four dimensions of expressive individualism were identified: autonomy, setting oneself apart from others, personal development, and expression of emotions. The relationship between expressive individualism and religion was found to be ambivalent and negatively dominated by autonomy. After eliminating the effect of autonomy, two patterns remained visible, both characterized by a positive connection to religiosity. Setting oneself apart from others is associated with more traditional and institutional religiosity, and personal development with a more private mode of religiosity. The explanation of this concealed longing for religion is sought in the pressure resulting from expressive individualism as a way of life.

Religion as an Existential Resource : On Meaning-Making, Religious Coping and Rituals

In this paper, we make a contribution to the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder. We show how religion can function as an existential resource. Religions enable people to perceive an underlying pattern of order and purpose below the surface of life’s incomprehensible inevitabilities such as death and suffering. Religion then works as a meaning-making system that can positively influence the individual’s mental health. Recently, the relations between religion and health have been studied particularly in the context of the ‘religious coping paradigm’. Religious coping is aiming at a ‘search for significance’. Religious coping will often occur where non-religious coping fails, especially in situations involving loss of life, health and relational embeddedness. Religious activities and acts can also enable religious coping. A crucial religious act is the ritual. What are the functions of ritual, and how can a ritual contribute to the mental health of an individual in crisis? What is, in this context, the role of myths and symbols? Several examples are given of how rituals can work as therapeutic tools in the treatment of traumatic disorders. We conclude by stating that religion, being a robust form of meaning-making, is not the sole system able to contribute to working through a trauma, and that its success is far from guaranteed.

‘My Special Prayer’: On Self, God, and Prayer

In this contribution we will demonstrate the impact of narcissism – an important personality trait in individualistic societies – on religious behaviour. Present-day Western culture is generally characterised as being expressive individualistic. A dominant trait in this pattern is the tendency of people to ascribe divine (godlike) characteristics to themselves. Psychologically speaking, we are dealing with narcissism. The various varieties in the spectrum of narcissism show that these attempts to attribute divine characteristics to the self do not always succeed. These individuals fantasise about becoming godlike, but their self-image is too fragile to enable these attempts to be successful. The success of this narcissistic aspiration has effects on religious activities, like praying. Based on earlier empirical research and a case study we show how self-deification, narcissism and prayer are related. Those who succeed in becoming godlike pray in a different manner than those who fail in this effort. The former address their prayers to themselves or an anonymous higher power, the latter address their prayers to a personal God.

“I want to pray and I don’t want to pray”: expressive individualism and prayer

This article reports on a study of the relationship between expressive individualism, an important characteristic of individualistic cultures, and different varieties of prayer. Four dimensions of expressive individualism (autonomy, setting oneself apart from others, personal development, and the expression of emotions) and four types of prayer (petitionary, religious, meditative, and psychological) were distinguished. Data were collected from participants in internet forums on Christian religiosity (N = 158); they were asked to complete questionnaires about expressive individualism and prayer. The relationship between expressive individualism and prayer was found to be an ambivalent one, and one that is negatively dominated by autonomy. After eliminating the effect of autonomy, two patterns remain visible, both of them characterised by a positive connection to religiosity. Setting oneself apart from others is associated with petitionary and religious prayer; personal development with meditative and psychological prayer. The explanation of this concealed longing for religion is sought in the pressure resulting from expressive individualism as a way of life.