Heather Lovell

Carbon offsetting: sustaining consumption?

In this paper we examine how theories of sustainable and ethical consumption help us to understand a new, rapidly expanding type of consumer product designed to mitigate climate change: carbon offsets. The voluntary carbon offset market grew by 200% between 2005 and 2006, and there are now over 150 retailers of voluntary carbon offsets worldwide. Our analysis concentrates on the production and consumption of carbon offsets, drawing on ideas from governmentality and political ecology about how narratives and technologies are used to create particular types of consumer subjectivities and shape consumer choice. We critically examine three narratives that offset producers are using to position carbon offsets and examine how these narratives are shaping circuits of carbon offset production and consumption. We assess the implications for the future governance of voluntary carbon offset markets and for the study of alternative consumption.

Converging agendas? Energy and climate change policies in the UK

In the UK climate change and energy have converged on the policy agenda. We discuss the implications for theories of policy change based on well-defined networks located within single, discrete, policy domains. We suggest that such approaches struggle to account for the dynamics of change in conditions of policy convergence. The issue of climate change has opened up and destabilised the UK energy policy sector, but this process has been surprisingly free of conflict, despite radical policy shifts. To date, convergence of the energy and climate change sectors has largely occurred at a discursive level, and we focus our attention on a number of different, but largely complementary, storylines about solutions to climate change. We draw on ideas about sociotechnical regime transitions, first, to explore why the storylines are not in obvious conflict, and, second, to identify small-scale niches where tensions in storylines do emerge as discourse is translated into material reality.

As frames collide: Making sense of carbon accounting

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to make sense of the tensions and contradictions between different conceptions of the meaning of carbon accounting. Design/methodology/approach - The paper draws on theories of framing to help explain the divergent understandings and practices currently encompassed by the term “carbon accounting”. The empirical core of the paper is based on a review of the literature and illustrated through examples of some of the contemporary problems in carbon accounting. Findings - Tensions and contradictions in carbon accounting can be understood as the result of “collisions” between at least five overlapping frames of reference, namely physical, political, market-enabling, financial and social/environmental modes of carbon accounting. Practical implications - Unresolved tensions in carbon accounting can undermine confidence in climate science, policies, markets and reporting, thereby ultimately discouraging action to mitigate climate change. Understanding this problem can contribute to finding practical solutions. Originality/value - The paper makes three distinct contributions to the emerging theoretical literature on carbon accounting. First, it provides a unique “unpacked” definition of carbon accounting that attempts to represent the contemporary range of meanings encompassed by the term. Second, it demonstrates how social science ideas about framing can help explain why definitions and understandings of carbon accounting vary. Third, by making the interactions between different forms of carbon accounting explicit through the metaphor of colliding frames of reference, the origins of some of the contemporary intractable issues in carbon accounting can be better understood.

Understanding Carbon Offset Technologies

In this article we unpack the ‘black box’ of carbon offsetting through a critical examination of the technologies and techniques that create carbon credits. Drawing on empirical research of compliance (Clean Development Mechanism) and voluntary carbon offset markets, we highlight the diversity of technologies, techniques and devices involved in carbon offsetting, ranging from refrigerant plants to systems of calculation and audit. We suggest that polarised debates for and against offsetting do not adequately reflect the considerable variations between types of offset project and governance practices in the compliance and voluntary offset markets. Using conceptual insights from governmentality theory and science and technology studies we assess the tensions in making standard, fungible carbon credits. In conclusion, we suggest attention to the technologies and materiality of carbon offsetting allows a fresh perspective on somewhat entrenched debates about the advantages and disadvantages of offsetting.

Supply and Demand for Low Energy Housing in the UK: Insights from a Science and Technology Studies Approach

Economic theory about supply and demand suggests that if consumer demand for a product increases then producers respond by increasing supply. In the UK housing market there is emerging evidence of consumer demand for low energy housing, yet little has been built to date by private sector housebuilders: existing low energy housing is largely within the social housing and self-build sectors. Ideas from science and technology studies (STS) are introduced to help further understanding of why the housing market might be slow to respond to changing consumer preferences. Although standard economic concepts concerning costs and price are able in part to explain the situation, greater attention to socio-technical issues highlights some of the reasons why innovation and change are difficult to effect. The housing market is best viewed as a socio-technical system, whereby the social and the technical are interlinked.

The role of non-nation-state actors and side events in the international climate negotiations

United Nations climate change conferences have attracted an increasing number and range of observer participants, often outnumbering national delegates. The interactions between the formal and informal spaces of climate governance at the Conference of the Parties (COP) are explored by investigating why non-nation state actors (NNSAs) attend them and by measuring to what extent official UN Side Events provide relevant information for the formal negotiations. Based on primary empirical research at recent COPs, it is found that 60–75% of Side Events have related directly to items under negotiation in the post-2012 climate negotiations. In this regard, Side Events that facilitate informal exchange between stakeholders not only provide input into the negotiations but also allow issues beyond the realm of the negotiations to be discussed, reflecting the scope of climate change. Although Side Events are an effective forum to exchange ideas and network, their current format and purpose as being events ‘on the side’ does not offer a sufficient framework for coordination between the work of NNSAs and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process.

The governance of innovation in socio-technical systems: The difficulties of strategic niche management in practice

Strategic niche management concerns how governments can foster the introduction of new technologies, initially through establishing experiments within protected niches. The development of UK low-energy housing illustrates some limitations of this model of technology change. Low-energy housing niches built during the 1990s have not been driven by Government policy, but rather have been initiated by entrepreneurial individuals working outside of Government. However, the Government has recently become interested in low-energy housing niches because of growing concerns about climate change. Several policies and initiatives drawing on the niches have emerged but they do not amount to a coherent niche strategy. Copyright , Beech Tree Publishing.

Discourse and innovation journeys: the case of low energy housing in the UK

The paper examines the role of discourse in innovation journeys using the example of low energy housing in the UK. Discourse is shown to be influential within innovation journeys in two main ways: first, discourse unites the often disparate organisations involved in innovation, and thereby gives structure and direction to the innovation journey; second, discourse has the power to retrospectively ‘reframe’ the course of an innovation journey, leaving out inconsistent parts and ignoring twists and turns, so past innovation journeys are in effect reconstructed in the present. This discursive remapping of innovation journeys has implications for current and future pathways of innovation. Further, there is a two-way relationship between discourse and technology development. It is discussed how pioneering low energy housing developments have themselves become a significant part of low carbon housing discourse, acting as powerful ‘storylines’.

The role of individuals in policy change: the case of UK low energy housing

In this paper I examine the role of individuals in the policy process, drawing on research into a number of individuals active in UK low-energy housing during the 1990s. Kingdons notion of a policy entrepreneur is critically assessed. Policy entrepreneurs are conceived of as working very closely with government trying to influence the day-to-day operations of the policy process. Here I broaden this definition, suggesting that individuals active outside of government circles can also have a significant impact on processes of policy change. Concepts from science and technology studies, including actor-network theory and innovation niches, are used to explore the relationship between low-energy housing entrepreneurs, the housing they built, and policy change. Sociotechnical approaches are helpful in thinking about both the potential for individuals operating outside of the policy arena to influence policy, as well as the agency of materials such as low-energy housing. The policy influence of the entrepreneurs is judged to be twofold: in reframing policy discourse, and in providing a model for new low-energy housing. In conclusion, the importance of attending to the local embeddedness of the entrepreneurs is discussed.

Exploring the role of materials in policy change: innovation in low-energy housing in the UK

There remains uncertainty in models of the policy process about how and when radical change takes place. Most policy authors focus on explaining incremental change, and yet in practice a pattern of change described as punctuated equilibrium has been observed, with periods of stability interspersed with periods of rapid, abrupt change. It is argued here that the influence of materials and technologies—the substance of policy—must be incorporated into models of the policy process in order to help further our understanding of radical change. Concepts from science and technology studies concerning the inseparability of social and technical spheres are used to explore how people and materials interact to create opportunities for radical change. These ideas are particularly relevant to policy sectors comprising durable, capital-intensive infrastructure, such as housing. Drawing on examples from the UK housing sector, ideas about policy networks and large technical systems are synthesised to develop a more holistic, interdisciplinary account of policy change.