Heiko Beyer

Three experimental approaches to measure the social context dependence of prejudice communication and discriminatory behavior

Empirical research on discrimination is faced with crucial problems stemming from the specific character of its object of study. In democratic societies the communication of prejudices and other forms of discriminatory behavior is considered socially undesirable and depends on situational factors such as whether a situation is considered private or whether a discriminatory consensus can be assumed. Regular surveys thus can only offer a blurred picture of the phenomenon. But also survey experiments intended to decrease the social desirability bias (SDB) so far failed in systematically implementing situational variables. This paper introduces three experimental approaches to improve the study of discrimination and other topics of social (un-)desirability. First, we argue in favor of cognitive context framing in surveys in order to operationalize the salience of situational norms. Second, factorial surveys offer a way to take situational contexts and substitute behavior into account. And third, choice experiments - a rather new method in sociology - offer a more valid method of measuring behavioral characteristics compared to simple items in surveys. All three approaches - which may be combined - are easy to implement in large-scale surveys. Results of empirical studies demonstrate the fruitfulness of each of these approaches.

Antiamerikanismus und Antisemitismus: Zum Verhältnis zweier Ressentiments Anti-Americanism and Anti-Semitism: On the Relationship between Two Resentments

Zusammenfassung Der vorliegende Artikel befasst sich auf begrifflicher, theoretischer und empirischer Ebene mit Zusammenhängen zwischen antiamerikanischen und antisemitischen Ressentiments. Den begriffstheoretischen Ausgangspunkt bilden aus historischen Arbeiten destillierte gemeinsame Strukturprinzipien: Personifizierung von Modernisierungsfolgen, Manichäismus, Konstruktion eines identitären Kollektivs. Diese Strukturprinzipien gestatten es, etablierte Theorien des Antisemitismus auch auf den Antiamerikanismus anzuwenden. Auf der Basis einer kognitionspsychologischen Fundierung der Projektionsthese der Kritischen Theorie wird zum einen argumentiert, dass Antiamerikanismus (zusammen mit anderen Ressentiments) die psychische Funktion antisemitischer Einstellungen übernehmen kann, insbesondere bei der Kanalisierung von Unzufriedenheit mit gesellschaftlichen Verhältnissen (Projektionsverschiebung). Zum anderen spricht das Theorem der Kommunikationslatenz dafür, dass Antiamerikanismus als kommunikatives Vehikel antisemitischer Einstellungen auftreten kann (Umwegkommunikation). Beide theoretischen Zusammenhänge werden von einer exemplarischen empirischen Studie mit Querschnittsdaten gestützt, für die 241 Schülerinnen und Schüler aus Chemnitz, Dresden und Leipzig befragt wurden. Summary The present paper investigates the relationship between anti-American and anti-Semitic resentments on a terminological, theoretical, and empirical level.We start by identifying a set of shared structural principles drawn from historical research: personification of modernity,Manichaeism, and the construction of identitary collectives. On this basis established theories of anti-Semitism are applied to anti-Americanism. Following the projection thesis of critical theory and basic assumptions of cognitive psychology, anti-Americanism (together with other resentments) can be seen as a psychofunctional substitute for anti-Semitic attitudes in the process of channeling social discontent (“projection shift”). The communication latency thesis, on the other hand, suggests that anti-Americanism can appear as a vehicle for the communication of anti-Semitic attitudes (“detour communication”). Empirical support for both theoretical relationships is provided by an exemplary study of cross-section data from interviews with 241 pupils from Chemnitz, Dresden, and Leipzig (Germany).

Uncovering the Nexus Between Attitudes, Preferences, and Behavior in Sociological Applications of Stated Choice Experiments

Multifactorial survey experiments such as stated choice experiments are used more and more frequently in social science research. In this article, based on an experimental study on ethical and political consumption, we explore the potential of hybrid choice models to explicitly model latent psychological factors such as attitudes, overcoming a possible endogeneity bias and misrepresentation of causality. To this end, we employ a hybrid latent class choice model (HLCCM) in which the latent class structure allocates individuals to classes according to underlying latent attitudes that also influence the answers to attitudinal questions. This allows, in line with sociological action theories, a theory-guided testing of preference segmentation and modification caused by attitudes. We compare the complex HLCCM with less complex models that do not take the latent variable nature of attitudes into account and discuss in which cases less complex models might be more appropriate. However, the HLCCM always has the advantage of providing structure for theory testing and is therefore a useful tool to uncover preference heterogeneity, preference modification, and decision-making processes in sociological and other social science research.

The cultural code of antifeminist communication: Voicing opposition to the ‘Feminist Zeitgeist’

The paper investigates the mechanisms of antifeminist communication norms, both on a theoretical and empirical level. Applying the concept of ‘cultural codes’ to the study of antifeminism we argue that statements denouncing feminism are often used as a signal to communicate a more general authoritarian worldview and an opposition towards ‘political correctness’. In the empirical part we present a factorial survey design applied to a German sample. This design is used to experimentally vary four situational characteristics which hypothetically influence whether individuals comply with antifeminist communication norms: (a) the gender of the speaker, (b) the topic of the conversation, (c) the personal attributes of the mentioned ‘feminist’, and (d) the type of sexism (benevolent vs hostile) articulated. The study shows that compliance with antifeminist communication norms increases if respective statements are voiced by women instead of men, especially if respondents report higher social status. Antifeminist norm compliance is also higher if men instead of women mention sexual harassment accusations of feminists. For left respondents, compliance increases if benevolent instead of hostile sexism is articulated. Intersituational person-related factors of antifeminist communication which we observed are: authoritarianism, social dominance orientation, and distrust in public and political institutions.

Has Anti-Americanism Become a “Progressive Prejudice” in Germany? Attitudes of the German Public toward America and Americans

ABSTRACT The article examines the causes and social mechanisms of anti-American attitudes and behavior and illustrates the fruitfulness of this theoretical approach using the example of Germany. We argue that anti-American attitudes are rooted mainly in two sociopsychological functions: the rationalization of social change and the projection of self-parts that have been suppressed. Other determinants are social norms, lack of personal social contact with Americans, and a strong national identity. Further, we also investigate the correlation between anti-American attitudes and behavioral intentions. Using a national sample (n = 1,201) and a comprehensive measure of anti-Americanism, we document the distribution of perceptions about America and Americans among the German population and explore the explanatory power of the theoretical concepts.