Heinz Heckhausen

Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind

Do people who are about to make a decision differ from people who are about to enact a decision just made with respect to (1) the contents of their spontaneous stream of thought, and (2) aspects of cognitive functioning reflective of short-term memory? Subjects either made a choice between, or were assigned to, two available test materials allegedly designed to measure creativity and differentially suited to promote an individuals full creative potential. Subjects were, however, interrupted prior to or shortly after making this choice: In Study 1, they were asked to report on the thoughts they experienced during the time period just before the interruption; in Study 2, subjects were interrupted either before or after making a choice and were asked to recall lists of words designed to test memory span. The results of Study 1 confirmed our assumption that predecisional versus postdecisional streams of spontaneous thought reflectmotivational versusvolitional states of mind. That is, predecisional thought was preoccupied with incentive values of goal options, expectancy of performance outcomes, and metamotivational directives, whereas postdecisional thought was concerned with questions of how to implement the pursued goal. In Study 2, subjects in a motivational state of mind exhibited a greater memory span than subjects in a volitional state of mind. Since, in a further study, performance on arithmetic tasks did not improve for subjects in a motivational as opposed to a volitional state of mind, the results of Study 2 are understood as a state-dependent increase in receptivity with respect to incoming information. In interpreting the present findings, the characteristic features of motivational and volitional states are explicated. Furthermore, it is suggested that the dominating research tradition focusing on motivational problems (i.e., expectancy-value models) and the abandoned research tradition concerned with volitional problems (i.e., formation and implementation of an intent) should be integrated into a functional unit.

Deliberative and implemental mind-sets: Cognitive tuning toward congruous thoughts and information

Study 1 established either deliberative mind-set by having Ss contemplate personal change decision or implemental mind-set by having Ss plan execution of intended personal project. Ss were subsequently requested to continue beginnings of 3 fairy tales, each describing a main character with a decisional conflict. Analysis revealed that deliberative mind-set Ss ascribed more deliberative and less implementational efforts to main characters than implemental mind-set Ss. In Study 2, Ss were asked to choose between different test materials. Either before or after making their decision, Ss were given information on deliberative and implementational thoughts unrelated to their task at hand. When asked to recall these thoughts, predecisional Ss recalled more deliberative and less implementational thoughts, whereas for postdecisional Ss the reverse was true. These findings suggest that deliberative and implemental mind-sets tune thought production and information processing. A course of action may be conceived rather narrowly as extending from its initiation (starting point) to its termination (end point). Alternatively, one may adopt a broader perspective that embraces the motivational origins of an action as the actual starting point and the individuals evaluative thoughts about the achieved action outcome as the final end point. In the present article, we take this broader perspective and segment the course of action into four distinct, sequential phases (Heckhausen, 1986). The first segment is the predecisional phase, where potential action goals entailed by a persons many wants and wishes are deliberated. When a decision to pursue one of these goals is made, a transition to the postdecisional (preactional) phase takes place, where the individual becomes concerned with implementing the chosen goal. However, this phase ends and the actional phase starts when actions geared toward achieving the chosen goal are initiated. Once these actions have resulted in a particular outcome, the postactional phase is entered and the individual proceeds to evaluate the achieved outcome. We postulate that each of these phases is accompanied by a distinct mind-set (Gollwitzer, 1990). Following the lead of the WUrzburg School (Kiilpe, 1904; Marbe, 1901; Watt, 1905; for reviews, see Boring, 1950, pp. 401-406; Gibson, 1941; and Humphrey, 1951, pp. 30-131), we assume that the characteristics of each of these mind-sets are determined by the unique qualities of the different tasks to be solved within each phase. That is, the different mind-sets tailor a persons cognitive appa

Intentional action and action slips.

The main assumption in this article is that actions are guided by mentally represented intentions. Intentions are subdivided into goal intentions and their contingent instrumental intentions

Motivation and Action: Contents

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Efficiency under record performance demands: Exertion control - An individual difference variable?

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Perspektiven einer Psychologie des Wollens

Semiprofessional players ran basketball circuits under either normal or record performance demands. Lactate concentration and heart rate were measured as indexes of exertion. Number of dribbling errors, attempted shots, hits, and hit rate served as measures of performance and efficiency. Several individual difference measures were taken in order to identify those athletes who were capable of moderating the extent of exertion and of preserving their performance from impairment. The indexes of exertion rose sharply from normal to record trials. Correspondingly, the numbers of dribbling errors and of shots increased while the hit rate declined. However, there were considerable individual differences in restraining exertion and preserving efficiency--both indexes of exertion control. Neither achievement motive scores nor questionnaire items that ask for self-knowledge about exertion control could account for these differences. However, individuals capable of exertion control could be discriminated by an action-control scale that asks about postdecisional implementation of action steps (Kuhl, 1985).

Motivation und Handeln: Einführung und Überblick

Gefragt, was die Motivationsforschung aufklaren sollte, zogere ich nicht zu antworten: mehr als das Ubliche; nicht blos die grosen Wahlakte — auch wenn man sie vielleicht bald als „Willensakte“ bezeichnen wird —, nicht blos die individuellen Unterschiede in vorgegebenen Labor—, Schul— oder Berufssituationen oder im schlieslichen Lebenserfolg, sondern auch das noch immer so dunkle Wirkungsgeflecht der ganz alltaglichen Handlungsfuhrung; dieses von Tag zu Tag unablassige Fortspinnen von vielerlei Handlungsfaden, das Aufnehmen und Fallenlassen einer Handlung, das Ubergehen zur nachsten. Alltagliche Handlungsfuhrung in einem solchen Sinn stellt uns mit Sicherheit nicht immer vor neue Wahlkonflikte, die taglich entschieden werden musten. Vieles, wenn nicht das meiste unseres taglichen Tatigseins ist gewohnheitsmasig an die wiederkehrenden Gelegenheiten in Zeit und Raum fixiert, es entlastet uns von bewuster oder gar willensaktmasiger Steuerung des Handelns.

Wünschen — Wählen — Wollen

Die zwei universellen Charakteristiken menschlichen Handelns sind das Streben nach Wirksamkeit und die Organisation des Handelns in Phasen von Zielengagement und Zieldistanzierung. Die Motivation einer Person, ein bestimmtes Ziel zu verfolgen, hangt von situativen Anreizen, personlichen Praferenzen und deren Wechselwirkung ab. Motivationale und volitionale Handlungsregulationen wechseln sich zu verschiedenen Handlungsphasen optimalerweise trennscharf und effizient ab. Individuelle Unterschiede in der Motivations- und Volitionsregulation konnen betrachtlich sein. Die Entwicklung der motivationalen und volitionalen Steuerung von Verhalten beginnt in der fruhen Kindheit und ist eng mit dem Verhalten erwachsener Bezugspersonen verknupft. Die handelnde Beeinflussung der eigenen Entwicklung setzt die Wirksamkeitsbestrebungen des Heranwachsenden fort und verleiht der dialektischen Wechselwirkung zwischen Person und Umwelt uber die Lebenszeit erst recht Dynamik.

Motivation durch Erwartung und Anreiz

Wunschen — Wahlen — Wollen: Diese drei Verben umspannen alles, womit sich die Motivationspsychologie befassen kann. Wunschen — damit fangt alles an. Es fallt schwer, eine Stunde wach zu sein, ohne das nicht vielerlei begehrens und erstrebenswert erschiene. Nach Sigmund Freud (1900) last uns selbst des Nachts das Wunschen nicht in Ruh. „Wunschlos“, wie man sagt, „glucklich zu sein“, ist jedenfalls die kurzeste Einheit einer motivationspsychologischen Zeitmessung, solange wir nicht bewustlos sind.

Motivation und Entwicklung

Das Anstreben von Zielzustanden, die mit Affekten verbunden sind, ist ein Kernstuck der Motivation. Anreiztheorien der Motivation gehen von einer Zielgerichtetheit des Verhaltens aus. Die Verhaltenssteuerung ist vorwarts gerichtet und nicht reaktiv wie in triebtheoretischen Modellen. Es braucht keinen Trieb, der druckt („push“). Stattdessen zieht das Ziel („pull“). Auserdem wird davon ausgegangen, dass nicht Reiz-Reaktions-Verbindungen, sondern Erwartungen von Zusammenhangen (Kontingenzen) erlernt werden. Daraus ergibt sich ein einfaches kognitives Motivationsmodell: Motivation als Funktion von Erwartung und Wert. Nach dieser Theorie wird bei der Wahl zwischen mehreren Handlungsalternativen jene bevorzugt, bei der das Produkt von erzielbarem Wert (Anreiz) und Wahrscheinlichkeit, ihn zu erzielen (Erwartung), maximal ist. Es gibt wohl keine neuere Motivationstheorie, die nicht in ihren Grundzugen dem Modelltyp dieser Erwartungs-Wert-Theorien entsprache.