Franz Emanuel Weinert

Interactions among aptitudes, strategies, and knowledge in cognitive performance

I Early Cognitive Development.- 1 Experiential Awareness and Childrens Episodic Memory.- Experiential Awareness.- Episodic Memory.- On Saying That: Monitoring Reality.- References.- Understanding Sources of Information: Implications for Early Strategy Use.- Understanding of Inference as Source of Knowledge.- Understanding How Perception and Communication Function as Sources of Knowledge.- Conclusions.- References.- 3 Discussion: Theory of Mind.- Comments on Perner: Three Questions.- Comments on Sodian: How Global Are the Effects.- References.- II Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving.- 4 The Entanglement of Knowledge and Process in Development: Toward a Tentative Framework for Understanding Individual Differences in Intellectual Development.- Some Definitional Issues.- A Brief Historical Excursion.- A Broadened View of Domain-Specificity.- Some Descriptive Data.- In Conclusion.- References.- 5 Cognitive Performance and Developmental Constraints.- A Tentative Set of Dimensions of Change.- Structural Similarity of Representations in Development.- Power of Organized Units in Inference Tasks.- Strategy Use and Information-Processing Capacity.- Prior Knowledge and Cognitive Performance.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 6 Understanding and Problem-Solving.- Problem-Solving Behavior Under Different Conditions (Study I).- Statable Knowledge About the Cognitive Demands of Different Problem-Solving Conditions (Study II).- Conclusions.- References.- 7 How Content Knowledge, Strategies, and Individual Differences Interact to Produce Strategy Choices.- Adaptive Value of Strategy Choices.- Models of Strategy Choice Based on Rational Calculations.- The Distributions of Associations Model.- Transitions in Strategy Use over Time.- Individual Differences in Strategy Choices.- References.- Explaining Childrens Problem-Solving: Current Trends.- The Influence of Metacognition Is Waning.- Processing Capacity Influences Strategy Choice.- Automatic and Controlled Processing.- Cognitive Style Is Back.- Focusing on the Individual in Context.- Issues Still out of Reach.- References.- III Interactive Roles of Strategies and the Knowledge Base in Memory Performance.- 9 Developmental and Individual Differences in Childrens Memory Strategies: The Role of Knowledge.- Efficiency of Mental Processing.- Nature and Organization of the Knowledge Base.- Effects of the Knowledge Base on Childrens Memory.- Memory Differences Between Children With Different Learning Abilities.- Knowledge Base and Novelty.- Conclusion and Implications for Education.- References.- 10 Conceptual Knowledge Processing: An Oxymoron.- Metaphors of Mind.- Conceptual Knowledge Processing.- Discussion.- References.- 11 Dynamics of Knowledge Structures: Some Underlying Strategies.- Conceptual Structures of Knowledge.- The Flexibility of Conceptual Knowledge Structures.- The General Approach.- The Developmental Approach.- The Differential Approach.- Conclusions.- References.- 12 Knowledge and Strategies: A Discussion.- Questions About Knowledge.- The Chapters.- An Overview.- References.- IV Impacts of Metacognitive Knowledge and Strategies on Cognitive Performance.- 13 Transsituational Characteristics of Metacognition.- A Model of Metacognition.- Executive Functioning.- Self-Regulation in Gifted Children.- General Strategy Knowledge, Self-Attributions, and Beliefs About Mind.- Executive Processes and Attributional Beliefs: An Integration.- References.- 14 Cultural Influences on Childrens Cognitive and Metacognitive Development.- Environmental Influences on Cognitive Development.- Research Perspectives.- Understanding How Children Learn.- References.- 15 Elaborative Interrogation and Facilitation of Fact Learning: Why Having a Knowledge Base Is One Thing and Using It Is Quite Another.- Adult Studies.- Child Studies.- Discussion.- References.- 16 The Role of Context and Development From a Life-Span Perspective.- Critical Tasks From a Life-Span Perspective.- Special Populations From a Life-Span Perspective.- References.- V Interactions Among Aptitudes, Strategies, and Knowledge in Cognitive Performance.- 17 Expert Knowledge, General Abilities, and Text Processing.- Expert Knowledge and Text Processing.- Relations Between Domain-Specific Knowledge and Metacognitive Knowledge.- General Abilities and Domain-Specific Knowledge.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 18 Exceptional Memory: The Influence of Practice and Knowledge on the Development of Elaborative Encoding Strategies.- Exceptional Memory.- Theoretical Analysis of Skilled Memory.- The Influence of Contextual Encodings on Serial Recall: An Experiment.- General Conclusions.- References.- 19 The Role of Knowledge, Strategies, and Aptitudes in Cognitive Performance: Concluding Comments.- Persistent Problems.- Major Accomplishments.- The Impact of Motivational, Educational, and Cultural Factors.- Individual Differences and Aptitude Issues.- Future Research Perspectives.- References.

Quality of instruction and achievement outcomes

Abstract This chapter reviews the fundamental assumptions, main results, and major problems of research on instructional quality and cognitive student outcomes. Although considerable progress has been made in this field of research, the present theoretical state, encompassing mostly simple process-product relations, is far from satisfactory. Findings from our own research demonstrate that it is both necessary and fruitful to expand the simple process-product paradigm by including cumulative, interactive, compensatory, and contextual effects.

Educational expertise: Closing the gap between educational research and classroom practice

Currently, educational research which is characterized by many weak and inconsistent results seems to be of little relevance for school psychologists. This is especially problematic if primary prevention is considered as a major goal of school psychology. In our opinion, an important step towards closing the gap between educational research and classroom practice could be made by integrating two theoretical positions: a master or expert teacher approach and the concept of a general teaching model, i.e. by reconciling an analytical strategy based on functional relationships between variables with a more holistic approach to teacher behavior. The integration of the two approaches into the concept of teaching expertise is demonstrated by the analysis of two causal models in which different knowledge components derived from research on the expert-novice paradigm are linked to the variables traditionally used in research on teaching.

Metamemory, memory performance, and causal attributions in gifted and average children

Fifth and seventh graders who had been teacher-selected as high- or average-achieving were tested on the Kognitiver Fähigkeits Test, a standardized test of intellectual abilities for German children. Children who met preestablished criteria as gifted or average were then tested on measures of metacognitive knowledge, attributional beliefs, and performance on a sort recall task. Results indicated ability-related differences in metamemory and sort recall performances. Responses to the attributional questionnaires also varied systematically according to ability: gifted children were more likely to attribute their academic successes to high ability than were average children, who showed a stronger belief in the importance of effort in determining task outcomes. Causal modeling analyses illustrated the strength of metacognitive knowledge as a performance predictor on the memory task, especially for average children. Results are discussed in terms of the value of metacognitive theory in understanding individual performance differences.

Competencies and key competencies: Educational perspective

This entry starts with a brief description of the concepts of ‘competence’ (a) and ‘key competence’ (b) in terms of their rather vague scientific meaning and their variable practical use. It then goes on to discuss (c) both the psychological and the educational problems so often associated with the concept of key competencies (key qualifications, core skills). The final section (d) draws a few conclusions for educational practice, education processes, and instruction processes.

Autobiographisches Gedächtnis: Mentale Repräsentation der individuellen Biographie

Im Rahmen biographischer Methoden stellen autobiographische Berichte, retrospektiv gerichtete Interviews und psychologische Anamnesen wichtige Datenquellen dar. Der wissenschaftliche Wert solcher Informationen wird allerdings sehr unterschiedlich eingeschatzt. So unterstellen manche von vornherein, das Erinnerungen an personlich bedeutsame Ereignisse und Erlebnisse in der Regel unzuganglich oder verfalscht sind; dies ganz in Ubereinstimmung mit dem beruhmten 68. Spruch aus Nietzsches „Jenseits von Gut und Bose“:,,,Das habe ich getan‘, sagt mein Gedachtnis. ,Das kann ich nicht getan haben‘ — sagt mein Stolz und bleibt unerbittlich. Endlich — gibt das Gedachtnis nach“ (Nietzsche o. J., S. 625). Diese Form des Verdrangens als eine spezielle Variante des Vergessens gilt in der Psychoanalyse als zentraler Mechanismus unbewuster psychischer Vorgange (Freud 1915). Zwar weniger radikal, doch nicht minder eindringlich betont auch G. W. Allport, ein besonders engagierter Verfechter der Fallstudienmethode in der Psychologie, das „Biographien, besonders Autobiographien... oft nichts anderes als ein charakterologischer Palimpsest“ sind (1949, S. 399), — also eine immer wieder ubermalte (Gedachtnis-)Inschrift, deren ursprungliche Information uberhaupt nicht oder kaum mehr zu entschlusseln ist. Schlieslich weist Thomae auf „die Bedingungen der Selbstauffassung und Selbsterkenntnis hin, die jede Autobiographie nur zu leicht zum Mittel der Erhohung, Bemitleidung, Rechtfertigung, Verteidigung oder Verklarung des eigenen Selbst werden lassen“ (1985, S.24), fordert aber zugleich die vermehrte Verwendung biographischer Methoden als eines notwendigen Zugangsweges zur Erfassung menschlichen Handelns und Erlebens (vgl. Thomae 1968, S. 106 ff.).

Compensatory Effects of Student Self-Concept and Instructional Quality on Academic Achievement

It is a frustrating experience for many educational psychologists that little noticeable theoretical progress has been made, despite intensive research, in answering some important practical questions. A typical example is the prediction and explanation of academic achievement. Although hundreds of empirical studies were published on this topic in the last decades, we still do not know enough about the causes and effects of success and failure at school. Knowledge of students’ psychological characteristics, information about instructional quality, and the combination of both of these variables do not satisfactorily predict achievement differences within or between classes. On the contrary, a critical review of the relevant literature leaves the impression that small differences in measures of academic achievement, student variables such as self-concept or achievement motive, and in instructional conditions lead to large differences in the prediction of subsequent academic achievement. This is exemplified in the surprisingly large variation range of the respective correlation coefficients in studies that dealt with similar matters (Walberg, 1986).

Aus Fehlern lernen und Fehler vermeiden lernen

Gutes enthalt oft auch Schlechtes, und Schlechtes verbirgt nicht selten auch Gutes. Diese von der wissenschaftlichen Psychologie immer noch nicht richtig gewurdigte fundamentale Lebensweisheit bestatigt sich zum Beispiel, wenn der in einem festlichen Symposium Gefeierte kurz vorher eine profunde Darstellung der zu besprechenden Thematik publiziert. Die Schrift von Fritz Oser und Tina Hascher (1997) ist ein gutes Exempel fur meine ebenso theorielastige wie empirietrachtige Behauptung.

Begabung und Lernen: Zur Entwicklung geistiger Leistungsunterschiede

Die klassische Alternative, ob Lernen und unterschiedliche Intelligenzleistungen durch die Natur festgelegt sind und/oder durch gezielte Bildungseinflusse entstehen, ist nicht zugunsten einer der beiden Seiten der Alternative zu unterscheiden. Um einem wenig aufschlussreichen „sowohl ... als auch ...“ zu entkommen, wird anhand von 3 Langzeitstudien mit exakten statistischen Methoden gezeigt, dass man bezogen auf Lernen und Intelligenzleistung von einer grosen Stabilitat kognitiver Merkmalsdifferenzen auszugehen hat, die durch zusatzliche Bildungsanstrengungen nicht zu kompensieren sind. Der padagogischen Utopie einer Egalisierung unterschiedlicher Intelligenzleistungen durch eine Budungsoffensive, wie man sie in den 60er Jahren propagierte, ist ebenso eine Absage zu erteilen wie den Genen als naturwuchsigen Anlagen und den soziokulturellen Unterschieden die alleinige Verantwortung zuzuweisen, was in den 90er Jahren Herrnstein und Murray in den USA zu belegen suchten.

Gedächtnisdefizite und Lernpotentiale: Diskrepanzen, Differenzen und Determinanten des geistigen Alterns

Auch fur Wissenschaftler ist geistiges Altern zuvorderst ein lebenspraktischer Vorgang, der selbst erlitten, verarbeitet, verdrangt oder bei anderen registriert, analysiert und interpretiert wird. Auf diese Weise entstehen kollektive oder subjektive Anschauungen uber Altern und Alter, die als implizite theoretische Kernannahmen, als forschungsleitende Ideen und als bevorzugte Deutungsmuster stillschweigend in die psychologische Alternsforschung eingehen. Es ist deshalb nicht erstaunlich, das sich in der Vielzahl und Vielfalt wissenschaftlicher Studien uber kognitive Veranderungen im hoheren Erwachsenenalter jenseits der Daten, Modelle und Theorien verschiedene Grundpositionen uber die „Natur“ oder das „Wesen“ des geistigen Alterns erkennen lassen.