Helen Zulch

Stress—Its Effects on Health and Behavior: A Guide for Practitioners

Stressors impact on all areas of a pets life, potentially to the detriment of their well-being. In addition, should this lead to behavior change, it is likely to cause strain in the owner-pet relationship with an increased risk of relinquishment. Understanding why events may be perceived as stressful to a given individual is essential in remedying their effect. Clinicians need to be skilled in recognizing and categorizing potential stressors as well as auditing the background stress in the animals environment as only once this has been accomplished can specific measures be implemented to reduce the effects of the stress load.

Using sniffing behavior to differentiate true negative from false negative responses in trained scent-detection dogs.

False negatives are recorded in every chemical detection system, but when animals are used as a scent detector, some false negatives can arise as a result of a failure in the link between detection and the trained alert response, or a failure of the handler to identify the positive alert. A false negative response can be critical in certain scenarios, such as searching for a live person or detecting explosives. In this study, we investigated whether the nature of sniffing behavior in trained detection dogs during a controlled scent-detection task differs in response to true positives, true negatives, false positives, and false negatives. A total of 200 videos of 10 working detection dogs were pseudorandomly selected and analyzed frame by frame to quantify sniffing duration and the number of sniffing episodes recorded in a Go/No-Go single scent-detection task using an eight-choice test apparatus. We found that the sniffing duration of true negatives is significantly shorter than false negatives, true positives, and false positives. Furthermore, dogs only ever performed one sniffing episode towards true negatives, but two sniffing episodes commonly occurred in the other situations. These results demonstrate how the nature of sniffing can be used to more effectively assess odor detection by dogs used as biological detection devices.

Word generalization by a dog (Canis familiaris): is shape important?

We investigated the presence of a key feature of human word comprehension in a five year old Border Collie: the generalization of a word referring to an object to other objects of the same shape, also known as shape bias. Our first experiment confirmed a solid history of word learning in the dog, thus making it possible for certain object features to have become central in his word comprehension. Using an experimental paradigm originally employed to establish shape bias in children and human adults we taught the dog arbitrary object names (e.g. dax) for novel objects. Two experiments showed that when briefly familiarized with word-object mappings the dog did not generalize object names to object shape but to object size. A fourth experiment showed that when familiarized with a word-object mapping for a longer period of time the dog tended to generalize the word to objects with the same texture. These results show that the dog tested did not display human-like word comprehension, but word generalization and word reference development of a qualitatively different nature compared to humans. We conclude that a shape bias for word generalization in humans is due to the distinct evolutionary history of the human sensory system for object identification and that more research is necessary to confirm qualitative differences in word generalization between humans and dogs.

Differences in Trait Impulsivity Indicate Diversification of Dog Breeds into Working and Show Lines

Impulsiveness describes the inability to inhibit behaviour in the presence of salient cues. Trait-level impulsivity exists on a continuum and individual differences can be adaptive in different contexts. While breed related differences in behavioural tendency in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) are well established, the phenomenon within lines of a breed which have been selected more recently is not well studied, although it may challenge the popular notion of breed-typical behaviour. We describe differences in impulsivity between and within two dog breeds with working and show lines selected for different levels of impulsivity: Border Collies (herding work) and Labrador Retrievers (gun work). Recent show line selection might have lessened differences in impulsivity between breeds. We tested this hypothesis on a dataset of 1161 individuals assessed using a validated psychometric tool (Dog Impulsivity Assessment Scale - DIAS). Collies were more impulsive on average, consistent with the original purpose of breed selection. Regarding line, working Collies differed from working Labradors, but show lines from the two breeds were not significantly different. Altered or relaxed artificial selection for behavioural traits when appearance rather than behaviour become the primary focus for breeders may reduce average differences in impulsivity between breeds in show lines.

Clinical indicators of occult musculoskeletal pain in aggressive dogs

AGGRESSIVE behaviour by dogs is the most frequent behaviour problem reported to veterinary behaviour clinics (Bamberger and Houpt 2006, Fatjo and others 2007). The behaviour is a serious problem for the victims (Weiss and others 1998) and for the animals themselves, since it often reflects a negative underlying emotional state, especially if associated with pain (Bamberger and Houpt 2006, Hsu and Sun 2010). Pain may lower the dogs general threshold for aggressive behaviour, while also encouraging specific aggressive displays as part of a protective/defensive response (Rutherford 2002, Muir and others 2004, Landsberg and others 2013). Beaver (1983) has suggested that more than a quarter (28.2 per cent) of dogs exhibiting aggression do so because of a medical condition, including pain, but pain-related aggression has been considered to account for only a small per cent of the total caseload in behaviour clinics, that is, 2–3.3 per cent (Beaver 1983, Borchelt 1983). However, when pain is identified, the data from Beaver (1983) suggest the prognosis is excellent, with all cases in her case review reported to have a successful treatment outcome. A recent small case series of aggressive dogs with a pain focus indicated that musculoskeletal pain from hip dysplasia and osteoarthritis of the elbow was the main cause of pain, occurring in 75 per cent (nine of 12 cases) of these cases (Camps and others 2012). There is a lack of specific or detailed description of the presentation of pain-related behaviour problems in companion animals, despite the value that this information would have in evaluating differential diagnoses and further assessment priorities, especially for veterinarians in general practice if referral to a non-veterinary behaviourist is being considered. Qualitative research can help to answer broad questions that might inform clinical judgement, such as ‘are there recurring themes …

When the bond goes wrong: problem behaviours in the social context

Abstract Despite its historical importance, the scientific study of normal human–dog relationships and the bond that exists between us and dogs has received remarkably little attention. Much research has been theoretical and descriptive rather than hypothesis driven, even though empirical testing is possible. Relationships and the bonds that keep them together are individual, varied, and dynamic, and so generalisations aimed at describing them are of limited value. Therefore, we consider how we can rationally define the dimensions of a relationship using Hinde’s (1976) useful framework and how this can be adapted to provide a more rigorous examination of the ways in which these relationships can break down. Tension arises when expectations are not met, and so a solid understanding of the biological and psychological capacities and limitations of the dog are an essential prerequisite for minimising the risk of problems. We select two areas for particular attention: factors relating to the structuring of the relationship (e.g., the type of bond that exists and reinforcement given) and factors relating to communication, especially within the context of obedience and conflict resolution which can lead to aggression.

Prevalence, duration and risk factors for appendicular osteoarthritis in a UK dog population under primary veterinary care.

Osteoarthritis is the most common joint disease diagnosed in veterinary medicine and poses considerable challenges to canine welfare. This study aimed to investigate prevalence, duration and risk factors of appendicular osteoarthritis in dogs under primary veterinary care in the UK. The VetCompassTM programme collects clinical data on dogs attending UK primary-care veterinary practices. The study included all VetCompassTM dogs under veterinary care during 2013. Candidate osteoarthritis cases were identified using multiple search strategies. A random subset was manually evaluated against a case definition. Of 455,557 study dogs, 16,437 candidate osteoarthritis cases were identified; 6104 (37%) were manually checked and 4196 (69% of sample) were confirmed as cases. Additional data on demography, clinical signs, duration and management were extracted for confirmed cases. Estimated annual period prevalence (accounting for subsampling) of appendicular osteoarthritis was 2.5% (CI95: 2.4–2.5%) equating to around 200,000 UK affected dogs annually. Risk factors associated with osteoarthritis diagnosis included breed (e.g. Labrador, Golden Retriever), being insured, being neutered, of higher bodyweight and being older than eight years. Duration calculation trials suggest osteoarthritis affects 11.4% of affected individuals’ lifespan, providing further evidence for substantial impact of osteoarthritis on canine welfare at the individual and population level.

Animals can assign novel odours to a known category

The ability to identify a novel stimulus as a member of a known category allows an organism to respond appropriately towards it. Categorisation is thus a fundamental component of cognition and an essential tool for processing and responding to unknown stimuli. Therefore, one might expect to observe it throughout the animal kingdom and across sensory domains. There is much evidence of visual categorisation in non-human animals, but we currently know little about this process in other modalities. In this experiment, we investigated categorisation in the olfactory domain. Dogs were trained to discriminate between 40 odours; the presence or absence of accelerants formed the categorical rule. Those in the experimental group were rewarded for responding to substrates with accelerants (either burnt or un-burnt) and inhibit responses to the same substrates (either burnt or un-burnt) without accelerants (S+ counterbalanced). The pseudocategory control group was trained on the same stimuli without the categorical rule. The experimental group learned the discrimination and animals were able to generalise to novel stimuli from the same category. None of the control animals were able to learn the discrimination within the maximum number of trials. This study provides the first evidence that non-human animals can learn to categorise non-biologically relevant odour information.

Playful activity post-learning improves training performance in Labrador Retriever dogs (Canis lupus familiaris)

Situations that are emotional and arousing have an effect on cognitive performance. It is thought that beta adrenergic activation and the release of stress hormones enhance memory consolidation and lead to an increase in memorability of emotional events. This beneficial effect has been shown in humans, non-human primates and rodents. Techniques which could enhance memory for learning specific tasks would be highly valuable, especially in dogs, which are extensively trained to aid humans. A pseudo-randomized, counterbalanced, between subject study designs was utilised and 16 Labrador Retrievers ranging from 1 to 9years of age were trained in a 2-choice discrimination paradigm. After task acquisition, either a playful activity intervention (N=8) or a resting period (N=8) took place, lasting for 30min. A range of factors including age, sex, training experience and trials to criterion on each day was subjected to a multiple factor/covariate General Linear Model analysis. The results show that playful activity post-learning improved training performance evidenced by fewer trials needed to re-learn the task 24h after initial acquisition (playful activity group: mean number of trials 26, SD 6; resting group: mean number of trials 43, SD 19, effect size 1.2). Average heart rate, as a measure of arousal, during the intervention was significantly higher in the playful activity group (143beats/min, SD 16) versus the resting group (86beats/min, SD 19, P<0.001). Salivary cortisol did not significantly differ between groups during training, however a significant decrease (T: -4.1 P<0.01) was seen after the playful activity. To our knowledge this is the first evidence that posttraining activity may influence training performance in dogs.

Stress and Pheromonatherapy in Small Animal Clinical Behaviour: Mills/Stress and Pheromonatherapy in Small Animal Clinical Behaviour

Preface vii Part I Principles and Concepts Underpinning the Management of Stress-related Behaviour Problems 1 1 How Animals Respond to Change 3 2 Affective Processes and the Organisation of Behaviour 37 3 Communication and Information Transfer 69 4 Assessment of the Problem-behaviour Patient 92 5 An Approach to the Management of Problem Behaviour 111 6 Principles of Pheromonatherapy 127 Part II Clinical Scenarios Involving the Management of Stress-related Behaviour Problems 147 7 Feline House-soiling Problems 149 8 Separation-related Behaviour Problems in Dogs 170 9 Sound Sensitivity 191 10 Travel-related Problems in Pets 215 11 Introducing the New Dog or Cat into the Home 225 12 Stress and Pheromonatherapy in the Veterinary Clinic 242 Appendix A 257 Appendix B 259 Glossary 264 Index 271