Herre van Oostendorp

Do readers construct spatial representations in naturalistic story comprehension

This study investigated whether spatial situation models are constructed in naturalistic story comprehension. The experiment featured a relatively complex, naturalistic text. When college students were given a normal reading instruction, they processed spatial information relatively fast and were relatively poor in verifying spatial inferences, compared to subjects given a spatial reading instruction. Additional analyses showed that the possession of a relatively strong spatial representation does not influence the processing and representation of subsequent spatial information under a normal reading instruction. Therefore, during normal reading, readers are not very much engaged in constructing, maintaining, and updating a spatial situation model.

The effects of the number of links and navigation support on cognitive load and learning with hypertext: The mediating role of reading order

Problems in learning with hypertext systems have been claimed to be caused by high levels of disorientation and cognitive load. This was recognized by DeStefano and LeFevre [DeStefano, D., & LeFevre, J. -A., (2007). Cognitive load in hypertext reading: A review. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3), 1616-1641.] who predicted an increase of cognitive load and impairment of learning for hypertexts with a higher number of links per page. From a practical perspective, several navigation support techniques, such as providing link suggestions, have been proposed for guiding learners and reducing cognitive overload. In an experiment, we tested DeStefano and LeFevres predictions as well as the usefulness of link suggestions. Participants used different versions of a hypertext, either with 3-links or 8-links per page, presenting link suggestions or not. We tested their cognitive load and learning outcomes. Results showed that there was a benefit of using link suggestions for learning, but no effect of number of links on learning was found. Moreover, the effects of our manipulations on cognitive load were mediated by the reading order that participants selected. Implications for research and the design of navigation support systems are discussed.

Cognitive Effects of a Structural Overview in a Hypertext

Disorientation and navigation inefficiency are the consequences of the fragmented and incoherent structure of most hypertexts. To avoid these negative effects, researchers recommend—among other things—an interface with a structural overview of the relations between sections. Some authors have found that with such an overview, information is looked up faster and remembered better. This study examined whether a structural overview also leads to a deeper understanding. Forty students read a hypertext about the effects of ultraviolet radiation in one of two presentation conditions (structural overview and list). In the list condition, the same topics were mentioned as in the overview condition, but just in the format of a list. After reading, they answered textbase questions which measured their recognition and also inference questions supposed to measure their situation model constructed from the information read. The last type of questions indicated the readers’ understanding of the text. On textbase questions, subjects with low as well as high prior knowledge scored equally well in both conditions. In contrast to our expectation, the overview did not improve the recognition of main points. However, on situation model questions low prior knowledge subjects scored significantly lower in the overview condition than in the list condition. These results supported our hypothesis that a structural overview may hinder the understanding of less knowledgeable readers, because it draws their attention to the textual macrostructure at the expense of attention to the microstructure of the text.

Individual differences and behavioral metrics involved in modeling web navigation

This paper presents an empirical study aiming at investigating individual differences and behavioral metrics involved in modeling web navigation. Factors that have an influence on web navigation behavior were identified with the aid of task analysis, and their relevance in predicting task outcomes (performance, satisfaction, perceived disorientation) was tested with the aid of multiple regression analysis. Several types of navigation metrics were calculated based on web logging data and used as indicators of user characteristics and task outcomes. Results show that spatial-semantic cognitive mechanisms seem to be crucial in adequately performing web navigation tasks. The fact that user characteristics and task outcomes can be estimated with reasonable accuracy based on navigation metrics suggests the possibility of building adaptive navigation support in web applications.

Moses beats Adam: A semantic relatedness effect on a semantic illusion

Abstract The purpose of the present study is to investigate the role of semantic relatedness in the occurence of semantic illusions like the Moses illusion (first described by Erickson and Mattson 1981). This illusion is investigated by using statements with inaccurate proper names varying in degree of overlap in attributes with target names and by registering judgment times. The results show a clear effect of semantic relatedness. Inaccuracies more often appeared to be left unnoticed in high-related statements than in low-related statements. Furthermore, the results of the corresponding judgment times indicate that judging statements with high-related inaccurate names need the same amount of time as judging statements with low-related names. However, more errors are made in this same amount of time, which indicates that high-related statements are processed less extensively. Finally, to achieve a precise judgment of high-related statements takes more time compared with low-related statements. In other words, more time is needed to unmask a high-related inaccuracy.

The influence of screen size and text layout on the study of text

Abstract This study investigates the effects of screen size (12 inch versus 15 inch) and text layout (well structured and ill structured) on the learning of text presented on the monitor of a personal computer. Two aspects of learning are assessed. A summary and a multiple-choice test are employed to measure the amount of information retained. Efficacy of learning is assessed by learning time and by cognitive effort, as measured by the performance on a secondary task. The results indicate that neither screen size nor text layout has a significant influence on the required cognitive effort or on the amount of information acquired. There is, however, a significant (main) effect of screen size on learning time: subjects using a 15 inch screen need less learning time than subjects using a 12 inch screen, with no difference in learning performance. It is suggested that more efficient integration processes in constructing the semantic representation are responsible for this reduction in learning time. Implicati...

Modeling Semantic and Structural Knowledge in Web Navigation

Research on cognitive modeling of information search and Web navigation emphasizes the importance of “information scent” (the relevance of semantic cues such as link labels and headings to a readers goal; Pirolli & Card, 1999). This article shows that not only semantic but also structural knowledge is involved in navigating the Web (Juvina, 2006). This article argues for considering both semantic and structural knowledge in modelling Web navigation. A cognitive model is proposed that uses information scent to account for users judgments of relevance (a semantic dimension) and “path adequacy” (the semantic similarity between a navigation path and a users goal) to account for users efficiency in traversing a Web structure (a structural dimension). Two empirical studies show that abilities to represent and manipulate spatial structures are complementary to semantic abilities in accounting for Web navigation performance.

Locating Information in an Online Newspaper

In this study several aspects of the usability of an online newspaper are examined. More specifically, the effects of reading-manipulation techniques such as scrolling and using hyperlinks on finding information at different locations are studied. Subjects participated in two sessions with a one-week interval. In each session subjects received a number of searching tasks consisting of finding information at different locations in the newspaper. Speed and accuracy were measured, and afterwards subjects received a recognition task. In general subjects were highly satisfied with the online newspaper. Their performance on the searching tasks was very adequate, even on deeper levels. It took, logically, more time to locate the information by scrolling down or by using a hyperlink to go to a next level than when the hyperlink leading to the desired information was immediately available on screen. The recognition performance was also worse. Locating information after scrolling and after using a hyperlink took approximately the same amount of time, and the recognition performance was about equal. However, an interaction effect was also found between reading-manipulation technique and hypertextual level. In particular, finding information for which scrolling down on a deeper hypertextual level was necessary took extra time and probably extra cognitive resources, leading to a lower recognition performance. It is concluded that it is probably better, if possible, to avoid presenting information on deeper hypertextual levels for which scrolling is necessary.

Using a cognitive model to generate web navigation support

A computational cognitive model of web navigation is proposed. Based on theories and models of text comprehension and web navigation, the plausibility of the proposed model is discussed. The model was used to generate navigation support and this support was offered to users in real time during their navigation sessions, in two experiments. In the first experiment navigation support was offered in the auditory modality and it had a positive effect on users task performance, especially for users with low spatial abilities. In the second experiment navigation support was offered in the visual modality and users positively evaluated it. Users navigated in a more structured way, judged the system as more usable, and perceived themselves as less disoriented. Support did also here lead to better task performance. Finally, some aspects concerning further enhancement of the validity of the proposed model and its practical relevance are discussed.

Failing to notice errors in sentences

Abstract The purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of conceptual relatedness of proper names in failure to notice errors in sentences. We hypothesised that sentences with highly related, but inaccurate proper names may lead to less complete processing than sentences with less related proper names, and hence to failure to notice factual inaccuracies. This hypothesis was investigated in two ways: first, by using inaccurate proper names varying in degree of overlap in attributes with target names; and, secondly, by using a paired-associate learning task in order to strengthen relations. The results indicate that greater overlap between proper names and stronger relations lead to more frequent failures to notice errors in sentences.