Pieter Wouters

How to Optimize Learning From Animated Models: A Review of Guidelines Based on Cognitive Load:

Animated models explicate the procedure to solve a problem, as well as the rationale behind this procedure. For abstract cognitive processes, animations might be beneficial, especially when a supportive pedagogical agent provides explanations. This article argues that animated models can be an effective instructional method, provided that they are designed in such a way that cognitive capacity is optimally employed. This review proposes three sets of design guidelines based on cognitive load research: The first aims at managing the complexity of subject matter. The second focuses on preventing activities (attributed to poor design) that obstruct learning. The last incites learners to engage in the active and relevant processing of subject matter. Finally, an integrative framework is presented for designing effective animated models.

Learner Performance in Multimedia Learning Arrangements: An Analysis Across Instructional Approaches:

In this study, the authors compared four multimedia learning arrangements differing in instructional approach on effectiveness and efficiency for learning: (a) hypermedia learning, (b) observational learning, (c) self-explanation–based learning, and (d) inquiry learning. The approaches all advocate learners’ active attitude toward the learning material but show differences in the specific learning processes they intend to foster. Learning results were measured on different types of knowledge: conceptual, intuitive, procedural, and situational. The outcomes show that the two approaches asking learners to generate (parts of) the subject matter (either by self-explanations or by conducting experiments) led to better performance on all types of knowledge. However, results also show that emphasis on generating subject matter by the learner resulted in less efficient learning.

An expertise reversal effect of segmentation in learning from animated worked-out examples

Many animations impose a high cognitive load due to the transience of information, which often hampers learning. Segmentation, that is presenting animations in pieces (i.e., segments), has been proposed as a means to reduce this high cognitive load. The expertise reversal effect shows, however, that design measures that have a positive effect on cognitive load and learning for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, might not be effective, or might even have a negative effect on cognitive load and learning for students with higher levels of prior knowledge. This experiment with animated worked-out examples showed an expertise reversal effect of segmentation: segmented animations were more efficient than continuous animations (i.e., equal test performance with lower investment of mental effort during learning) for students with lower levels of prior knowledge, but not for students with higher levels of prior knowledge.

Explaining the segmentation effect in learning from animations: The role of pausing and temporal cueing

Segmentation of animations, that is presenting them in pieces rather than as a continuous stream of information, has been shown to have a beneficial effect on cognitive load and learning for novices. Two different explanations of this segmentation effect have been proposed. Firstly, pauses are usually inserted between the segments, which may give learners extra time to perform necessary cognitive processes. Secondly, because segmentation divides animations into meaningful pieces, it provides a form of temporal cueing which may support learners in perceiving the underlying structure of the process or procedure depicted in the animation. This study investigates which of these explanations is the most plausible. Secondary education students (N = 161) studied animations on probability calculation, after having been randomly assigned to one of four conditions: non-segmented animations, animations segmented by pauses only, animations segmented by temporarily darkening the screen only, and animations segmented by both pauses and temporarily darkening the screen. The results suggest that both pauses and cues play a role in the segmentation effect, but in a different way.

The role of Game Discourse Analysis and curiosity in creating engaging and effective serious games by implementing a back story and foreshadowing

Abstract A challenge for serious games designers is to integrate learning with entertainment. For this purpose, the generation of curiosity using the foreshadowing/back story technique is promising. To implement this technique we propose the Game Discourse Analysis (GDA) which discerns between information flow (i.e. the sequence of information elements in a chronological order) and game discourse (i.e. the manipulation of the information flow to make the game more engaging and effective). We elaborate on the GDA and describe how two of the authors applied it in order to implement foreshadowing/back story in the game ReMission. The GDA was found to have potential as a communication tool for multidisciplinary design teams. Also, two problems were signaled: (1) creating an information flow is laborious and designers may benefit from automating parts of the GDA; (2) substantial deviations from the optimal information flow by players’ actions may interfere with the intention of the game discourse. Additionally, in an experiment we tested the impact of this GDA supported manipulation on engagement (curiosity) and learning. We found that the GDA-supported foreshadowing/back story yielded more curiosity, but that it did not yield learning.

Attentional Cueing in Serious Games

Games, and serious games especially, revolve around learning new material and integrating this into a mental model. However, playing games can be cognitively demanding and novices may fail to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information. To overcome this, one can try to subtly cue the attention of the player to the relevant material. We empirically tested the use of auditory cues to guide the player in learning the correct procedure in a 3D serious triage training game. Learning did not significantly improve in the auditory cueing condition and mental model construction was even significantly worse in the cueing condition, as compared to a control group with no cues. Implications for game design and future research are subsequently discussed.

“Zeldenrust”: A Mathematical Game-Based Learning Environment for Prevocational Students

In this contribution, we present a game-based learning environment for 12–16-year-old vocational students in which they can practice proportional reasoning problems. The learning content and goals, as well as the specific game features are discussed. We can conclude that developing a serious game implies many choices and decisions led by theoretical foundations, as well as by practical limitations and pragmatic considerations.

Game design: the mapping of cognitive task analysis and game discourse analysis in creating effective and entertaining serious games

Motivation -- Game design and instructional design have to be reconciled in order to create effective and engaging serious games. However, a methodology for this purpose is not yet available. Research approach -- Such a methodology should meet two requirements. It should provide (1) a taxonomy of categories that can be used to describe both information related to learning objectives (e.g., cognitive skills) and information describing the dynamics of the game, (2) guidelines to trigger learning naturally in the game. Findings/Design -- Our proposed methodology comprises two stages. First, a cognitive task analysis (CTA) is made of the task or the domain that has to be learned. Second, the information of this analysis has to be integrated with game-related information elements using our Game Discourse Analysis (GDA). We developed a taxonomy of information elements, types of relations and aggregates of information elements which form the tools for the GDA. We showcase the methodology in the domain of triage. In addition, we present two pilot studies to validate our claims. Research limitations/Implications -- Although the two pilot studies provide some evidence for our claims, more research is needed. Originality/Value -- Currently, the community of (serious) games designers lacks an instrument to design engaging serious games, to communicate about these games and to make comparisons between serious games. Our methodology fills in this gap. Take away message -- Serious game design requires a methodology (GDA) that enables designers to describe, visualize, understand and manipulate the information flow in games in order to create effective and engaging serious games.

Overview of Instructional Techniques to Facilitate Learning and Motivation of Serious Games

Computer games that are used for the purpose of learning, training, and instruction are often referred to as serious games. The last decade shows a huge increase in empirical studies investigating the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of serious games. Recent meta-analyses show that serious games are effective compared to traditional instruction but that the effectiveness can be improved. This chapter explores which specific instructional techniques can further improve learning and increase motivation. We define instructional techniques as any adaptation of a feature of the game itself or in the context of the game that influences the selection of relevant information, the organization, and integration of that information and/or the intrinsic motivation of the player. The starting point is a meta-analysis conducted in 2013 that is updated and extended. The meta-analysis has a value-added approach and shows which game features can improve learning and/or increase motivation. The interpretation of the results will yield nine proven effective or promising instructional techniques in terms of learning and/or motivation. This set of nine techniques—content integration, context integration, assessment and adaptivity, level of realism, narration-based techniques, feedback, self-explanation and reflection, collaboration and competition, and modeling—form the basis of this volume, which is closed by a reflection chapter.

The Role of Curiosity-Triggering Events in Game-Based Learning for Mathematics

In this study, we investigate whether cognitive conflicts induced by curiosity-triggering events have a positive impact on learning and motivation. In two experiments, we tested a game about proportional reasoning for secondary prevocational students. Experiment 1 used a curiosity-triggering vs. control condition pretest–posttest design. The control condition received the game without curiosity-triggering events. The results provided evidence that the game improves proportional reasoning skills. Although game performance was positively related to posttest performance, the hypothesized higher increase in learning and motivation after curiosity-triggering events was not found. Based on the results of Experiment 1, the game was adapted. Experiment 2 showed basically the same pattern of results, but we did not find a learning effect after playing the game. In the Discussion, we suggest additional research with think-aloud and/or eye-tracking to map the actual thoughts after the curiosity-triggering events. In addition, we propose some alternative implementations to evoke cognitive conflicts.