Himlal Baral

Measuring and managing ecosystem goods and services in changing landscapes: a south-east Australian perspective

This paper reviews approaches to measuring and managing the multiple ecosystem goods and services (ESS) provided by production landscapes. A synthesis of these approaches was used to analyse changes in supply of ESS in heavily cleared and fragmented production landscapes in south-east Australia. This included analysis of spatial and temporal trade-offs and synergies among multiple ESS. Spatially explicit, up-to-date and reliable information can be used to assess ESS supplied from different types of land uses and land cover and from different parts of a landscape. This can support effective management and payment systems for ESS in production landscapes.

Ecosystem services and livelihoods in a changing climate: Understanding local adaptations in the Upper Koshi, Nepal

Mountain ecosystems are increasingly being affected by global environmental change, challenging the ubiquitous agro-ecosystem-based livelihoods of the people. This article uses participatory research methods to document and analyse (1) local and regional impacts of climate change on ecosystem services (ES) and livelihoods, and (2) the main current adaptation strategies of local peoples in the mountains of central Nepal. Major observed impacts include reduced precipitation and an irregular rainfall pattern, affecting paddy cultivation and winter crop production. Production is also affected by increased pest and pathogen prevalence. Other impacts include increased livestock disease and reduced forest regeneration. Our results confirm earlier findings of a decrease in the district’s forest cover in past; however, substantial efforts in forest conservation and management at the local level have gradually increased forest cover in recent years. Despite the increased potential for forest ecosystem services, the availability of forest goods, in particular fuel wood, fodder and litter, have decreased because of a strict regulation on forest goods extraction. Additionally, new invasive species are colonising these forests, preventing regeneration of preferred and local forest vegetation in some areas and, as a result, the densities of tree crops are changing. Most users cope with these changes by short term, reactive solutions. However, a number of local adaptation strategies, such as changing both agricultural practices and water harvesting and management, are increasing efficiency in resource use. To increase the adaptive capacity of poor households, we suggest it is essential to incorporate climate change adaptations within the local planning process.

Payment for ecosystem services: possible instrument for managing ecosystem services in Nepal

Payment for ecosystem services (PESs) is part of a new and more direct conservation and management paradigm explicitly recognizing: (1) the need to bridge the interests of communities connected by ecosystems, (2) the costs of securing and maintaining the provision of different ecosystem services and (3) that those who benefit from these services need to pay for these costs. While discussions on the potential of PES are becoming more frequent, Nepal lacks concrete policies and an umbrella legislative framework at the national, sub-national, and institutional levels to operationalize PES. A lack of vertical and horizontal coordination among government departments and agencies often creates problems at the implementation level. This paper discusses PES as a possible instrument to finance ecosystem management in Nepal, based on lessons learned from various ongoing PES-type schemes. We review a number of such schemes based on the available literature and key informant surveys in selected PES pilot sites. We argue that PES experience in Nepal remains limited and is as yet insufficient as basis for mainstreaming. We recommend that (1) existing schemes need to be monitored to analyze challenges and effectiveness, and (2) such analyses should be carried out simultaneously with informing the national policy dialog to support the debate on implementing PES for sustainable ecosystem management.

Studies on forest landscape restoration in hilly and mountainous regions of Asia and Africa – an introduction to the Special Issue

The field of forest landscape restoration (FLR) is quickly gaining traction now that national commitments to restore degraded lands under the 2011 Bonn Challenge have reached upwards of 160 million ha. While the growing literature on FLR and associated methodologies being proposed emphasizes the importance of including stakeholders in decision making and implementation, local communities in hilly and mountainous regions often face particular challenges. The papers in this Special Issue of the International Forestry Review shed light on some of the approaches incorporated in FLR design and its outcomes in cases from China, Ethiopia, India, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. These include direct subsidies or PES, land distributions and devolution of resource rights, engagement of communities in participatory management, and other approaches. Taken together, the studies in this Special Issue bring together a range of insights into the diversity of approaches favoring the implementation of FLR, particularly in sloping landscapes, under varying social and ecological conditions.

Change in land use and ecosystem services delivery from community-based forest landscape restoration in the Phewa Lake watershed, Nepal

Global initiatives to promote large-scale forest landscape restoration (FLR) require adaptive approaches that are consistent with locally relevant models of land use management. Nepal’s experience in FLR provides lessons for programme design with potential broader relevance to the Himalayas more generally and to other regions featuring similar upstream–downstream interactions that reflect the requirement of locally appropriate economic incentives for achieving change. The paper analyses land cover change over four decades (1975-2015) from satellite images and evaluate the status of ecosystem services (ES) and benefits delivery from community-based FLR (CBFLR) through community perception and expert’s opinion in the Phewa Lake watershed. Results reveal a substantial reversal of land degradation and forest recovery (12.1% of the total watershed area) due to the CBFLR that impact to increased delivery of a range of ES. Notably, while water discharge rates may have decreased following the increase in forest area, siltation has been reduced, protecting water quality in the lake and benefiting local economic development.

Perceptions of Local People Toward Pulpwood Plantations: Insights from the Q-Method in Indonesia

SUMMARY Industrial timber plantations are controversial in many parts of the world, including in Indonesia. Knowledge of their perceived impacts among local populations is important for better management and integration of plantations in the rural landscape. To advance knowledge on this topic, we used the Q-method in a case study in East Kalimantan province, Indonesia, where a large-scale acacia plantation is established. Three groups emerge from the analysis, with contrasting viewpoints: a first group exhibits enthusiasm over the development of the plantation, including recognition of environmental services provided; the two other groups express dissatisfaction, either generally on all aspects or with a focus on the plantation as an obstacle to local development. Research has shown that the Q-method needs to be complemented by other tools such as household surveys to compensate for its limitations (e.g. lack of representativeness in all groups and lack of information on the determinants of inclusion in a given group).

From denuded to green mountains: process and motivating factors of forest landscape restoration in Phewa Lake watershed, Nepal

Global initiatives to promote large-scale forest landscape restoration (FLR) require adaptive approaches consistent with locally relevant models of land use, management, ownership and economic incentives. The Phewa Lake watershed was subject to severe degradation leading to high siltation of the lake. Forests were restored to this hilly and mountainous landscape as a result of four-decades of conservation and communitybased forestry (CBF) efforts. This study assessed the process and key motivating factors for community-based forest landscape restoration. The main finding is that community participation, promoted by Nepals policy of decentralised forest management, was a key motivating factor for the success of forest landscape restoration and increased local ownership of restoration efforts. Promotion of natural forest regeneration through CBF was an effective landscape conservation method compared to the government-led investments in structural engineering. The CBF approach can make a significant contribution to forest restoration and achieving national and international restoration targets.

Spatial Assessment of the Potential Impact of Infrastructure Development on Biodiversity Conservation in Lowland Nepal

Biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate with infrastructure development being one of the leading causes. New infrastructure, such as roads, provides new access and results in increased land clearing and wildlife hunting. A number of large infrastructure projects, including new roads and rail, are being planned in Nepal. We show the application of readily available remotely sensed data and geospatial tools to assess the potential impact of these future developments on habitat quality under three protection-level scenarios. Our findings reveal that there is currently large spatial heterogeneity in habitat quality across the landscape as a result of current anthropogenic threats, and that three areas in particular could have up to 40% reduction in habitat quality as a result of the planned infrastructure. Further research is required to determine more precisely the impact on key species. Strengthening protected areas and buffer zones will contribute to mitigating degradation to some degree, however, large areas of biologically significant areas outside protected areas will be affected without new controls. Our geographic information systems (GIS) based methodology could be used to conduct studies in data poor developing countries, where rapid infrastructure development across ecological sites are ongoing, in order to make society, policy makers, and development planners aware.