Hisham Abu-Raiya

Empirically based psychology of Islam: summary and critique of the literature

In this paper, we systematically review the growing empirically based psychology of Islam. We arrive at 10 conclusions: (l) Islam is a multidimensional religion; Islam might mean different things to different people, and some people might adhere to some of its elements but not to others; (2) Islam is similar to, but is different from, other religions; (3) Islams role in the lives of Muslims seems mostly positive; (4) Some types of Islamic religiousness are negative; (5) The empirical findings have not been translated yet into clinical applications; (6) Most of studies conducted among Muslims provide only a birds-eye view of Islam; (7) Empirical studies of Muslims are scarce; (8) Empirical research on negative types of religiousness among Muslims is sparse; (9) The majority of research in this field has been restricted to convenient samples; (10) Several important topics with implications for Muslims deserve further consideration, and there is a need for more varied research methods in studies of Muslims. The implications of these findings and the limitations of this review are discussed.

Robust Links Between Religious/Spiritual Struggles, Psychological Distress, and Well-Being in a National Sample of American Adults

This study is one of the first attempts to examine the relationships between religious and spiritual struggles (r/s struggles) measured comprehensively and indicators of psychological distress (i.e., depressive symptoms, generalized anxiety) and well-being (i.e., satisfaction with life, happiness) using a nationally representative sample of American adults (N = 2,208) dealing with a wide range of major life stressors. In addition, it examines the key question of whether these relationships persist after controlling for potentially confounding psychosocial/religious influences. Correlational analyses revealed that all 5 types of the r/s struggles assessed (i.e., divine, demonic, interpersonal, moral, ultimate-meaning) correlated significantly positively with both depressive symptoms and generalized anxiety, and significantly negatively with both satisfaction with life and happiness. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that even after controlling for the effects of demographics and other potentially confounding variables (i.e., neuroticism, social isolation, religious commitment) the r/s struggle subscales added unique variance to the prediction of all 4 criterion measures. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are offered, and the limitations of the study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Spiritual Struggles as a Possible Risk Factor for Addictive Behaviors: An Initial Empirical Investigation

Research has provided robust evidence that religious/spiritual variables serve as protective factors against developing addictive behaviors, such as substance-related abuse. Few studies, however, have considered whether religious/spiritual variables may be risk factors in the development of addictive behaviors. One such variable, spiritual struggles, is receiving increased attention and has been empirically linked to various negative psychological and physical outcomes. The current longitudinal study examined spiritual struggles as a predictor in the development of addictive behaviors among a sample of 90 freshmen college students. Findings indicate that higher scores on spiritual struggles were tied to higher levels of 11 out of 14 domains of addiction, including caffeine, exercise, food starving, gambling, prescription drugs, recreational drugs, sex, shopping, tobacco, and work. This is the first study to demonstrate spiritual struggles as a possible risk factor in the development of a wide range of potentially destructive behaviors for first-year college students. Practical implications are discussed.

Western psychology and Muslim psychology in dialogue: comparisons between a Qura'nic theory of personality and Freud's and Jung's ideas.

In this paper, comparisons are made between a newly developed Qura’nic theory of personality and the Freudian and Jungian theories of the mind. Notable similarities were found between the Freudian id, ego, superego and neurosis and the Qura’nic nafs ammarah besoa’ (evil-commanding psyche), a’ql (intellect), al-nafs al-lawammah (the reproachful psyche) and al-nafs al-marid’a (the sick psyche), respectively. Noteworthy resemblances were detected also between the Jungian concepts collective unconscious, archetypes, Self and individuation and the Qura’nic constructs roh (spirit), al-asmaa’ (the names), qalb (heart), and al-nafs al-mutmainnah (the serene psyche), respectively. These parallels, as well as the departure points, between the models are thoroughly discussed and analyzed. The comparisons performed in this paper open new avenues for dialogue between western models of the psyche and their Muslim counterparts, a dialogue that can enrich both perspectives and advance the field of psychology.

Towards a systematic Qura’nic theory of personality

Based on hermeneutic interpretation of the Holy Qura’n and the theoretical suggestions of the eminent Muslim thinker Al-Ghazali, a Qura’nic theory of personality is articulated. Eight main interrelated concepts have been identified in the present analysis and serve as the building blocks of a Qura’nic theory of personality: nafs (psyche), nafs ammarah besoa’ (evil-commanding psyche), al-nafs al-lawammah (the reproachful psyche), roh (spirit), a’ql (intellect), qalb (heart), al-nafs al-mutmainnah (the serene psyche) and al-nafs al-marid’a (the sick psyche). The Qura’nic theory of personality is psychospiritual, structural, dynamic, topographic, holistic, and holds a largely negative view of human nature. The implications of this theory for research and practice are discussed.

A critique from within: some important research issues that psychologists of religion and spirituality should further work on

ABSTRACT Operating from a perspective of an empirical psychologist of religion and spirituality, in this paper, I point to some areas of improvement in our field. Specifically, I (1) briefly target the lack of consensus in defining religion and spirituality; (2) point to the need for answering the crucial question: How unique is religion? (3) tackle the Western/Christian bias of the field; and (4) address three fundamental methodological issues (generalisability, self-report, and cross-sectional design) and their implications for research.

An Empirical Examination of Religious/Spiritual Struggle Among Israeli Jews

The current investigation examined the prevalence, predictors, and psychological implications of religious and spiritual (r/s) struggles among a sample of Israeli-Jewish university students. R/s struggle was assessed by the Religious and Spiritual Struggles (RSS) Scale. This is a newly constructed scale that assesses a wide array of r/s struggles. The RSS is composed of six factors of struggles: Divine, Doubt, Demonic, Interpersonal, Moral, and Ultimate Meaning. Confirmatory factor analysis of the RSS in this study confirmed this six-factor structure. Of the 164 Jewish participants, between 1.2% and 30.5% experienced various r/s struggles. Beliefs in a cruel God and distant God, religious participation, and fundamentalism predicted higher levels of different types of struggle. All six forms of struggle were correlated with greater psychological distress. In regression equations including r/s struggles and demographic and religious variables, Moral struggles predicted lower life satisfaction, Divine struggles predicted depressive symptoms, and both Divine and Doubt struggles predicted generalized anxiety. Possible explanations and implications of the findings are offered. We conclude by pointing to the limitations of the study and suggesting a few directions for future research.

The Intergenerational Effect of Maternal Multicultural Experience on Children’s Tolerance: An Example From Palestinians and Jews in Israel

Although recent research has demonstrated the benefits of multicultural experience for reducing personal levels of intergroup bias, the potential for an intergenerational effect has yet to be explored. Using samples of Jewish-Israeli (Study 1a) and Palestinian-Israeli (Study 1b) mother–child dyads, we found that maternal multicultural experience was indirectly related to greater social tolerance among children via lower levels of maternal need for cognitive closure which, in turn, triggered higher levels of maternal social tolerance. These results show that when it comes to multicultural experience, its impact can extend beyond the self to also affect the next generation. Implications for developmental theories of prejudice acquisition and prejudice interventions are discussed.

The process of desistance among core ex-gang members

Research has established robust links between gang membership, delinquency, violence and victimization. Yet studies examining the process of gang desistance in general and that of core gang members in particular, are quite rare. The current study aims to identify factors associated with desistance of core gang members as well as describe the nature of the process that these “formers” have undergone. Thirty-nine core ex-gang members (80% males and 20% females) from the San Francisco Bay area and Los Angeles, with an average length of 11.6-years gang membership, were interviewed regarding their involvement in the gang and the desistance process. A systematic qualitative analysis based on grounded theory methodology was mainly utilized. We found that the decision to leave the gang is a result of a combination of push (e.g., personal and vicarious victimization, burnout of gang lifestyle, disillusionment by the gang) and pull (e.g., parenthood, family responsibilities, religious and cultural awakening) factors that evolved over time. Push factors were more dominant in this domain. We also found that while male core ex-gang members tended to leave the gang more frequently because of push factors, female ex-gang members were more inclined to desist due to pull factors. Our analysis also showed that core gang members shared a general pattern of the desistance process comprising of the following 5 stages: triggering, contemplation, exploration, exiting and maintenance. Based on these results, we outlined stage-specific recommendations for agents of societal change to help in facilitating the desistance of core gang members.

The relationships between religious coping and mental and physical health among female survivors of intimate partner violence in Israel.

This study is one of the first studies to examine the relationships between religious coping and indices of mental and physical health among female survivors of intimate partner violence (IPV). This investigation utilized a cross-sectional design and a sample of 140 Israeli female survivors of IPV, from different religious backgrounds. Participants were asked to provide demographic information and complete measures of religious coping, depressive symptoms, generalized anxiety, loneliness, and perceived poor physical health. As expected, positive correlations were observed between negative religious coping and all outcome measures. Contrary to expectations, positive religious coping was related to none of the outcome measures. The findings suggest that overall religious ways of coping constitute more of a burden than a helpful resource in the coping process of female survivors of IPV. Yet additional studies that test the intricate relationships between religious coping and health and well-being among this population are needed to reach clear-cut conclusions in this regard.