Hongwei Qin

The Transcription Factors Sp1, Sp3, and AP-2 Are Required for Constitutive Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 Gene Expression in Astroglioma Cells

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent endopeptidases that contribute to pathological conditions associated with angiogenesis and tumor invasion. MMP-2 is highly expressed in human astroglioma cells, and contributes to the invasiveness of these cells. The human MMP-2 promoter contains potential cis-acting regulatory elements including cAMP response element-binding protein, AP-1, AP-2, PEA3, C/EBP, and Sp1. Deletion and site-directed mutagenesis analysis of the MMP-2 promoter demonstrates that the Sp1 site at −91 to −84 base pairs and the AP-2 site at −61 to −53 base pairs are critical for constitutive activity of this gene in invasive astroglioma cell lines. Electrophoretic gel shift analysis demonstrates binding of specific DNA-protein complexes to the Sp1 and AP-2 sites: Sp1 and Sp3 bind to the Sp1 site, while the AP-2 transcription factor binds the AP-2 element. Co-transfection expression experiments inDrosophilia SL2 cells lacking endogenous Sp factors demonstrate that Sp1 and Sp3 function as activators of the MMP-2 promoter and synergize for enhanced MMP-2 activation. Overexpression of AP-2 in AP-2-deficient HepG2 cells enhances MMP-2 promoter activation. These findings document the functional importance of Sp1, Sp3, and AP-2 in regulating constitutive expression of MMP-2. Delineation of MMP-2 regulation may have implications for development of new therapeutic strategies to arrest glioma invasion.

SOCS3 Deficiency Promotes M1 Macrophage Polarization and Inflammation

Macrophages participate in both the amplification of inflammation at the time of injury and downregulation of the inflammatory response to avoid excess tissue damage. These divergent functions of macrophages are dictated by their microenvironment, especially cytokines, which promote a spectrum of macrophage phenotypes. The M1 proinflammatory phenotype is induced by LPS, IFN-γ, and GM-CSF, and IL-4, IL-13, and M-CSF induce anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages. Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins function as feedback inhibitors of the JAK/STAT signaling pathway, and they can terminate innate and adaptive immune responses. In this study, we have evaluated the influence of SOCS3 on macrophage polarization and function. Macrophages obtained from LysMCre-SOCS3fl/fl mice, which lack SOCS3 in myeloid lineage cells, exhibit enhanced and prolonged activation of the JAK/STAT pathway compared with macrophages from SOCS3fl/fl mice. Furthermore, SOCS3-deficient macrophages have higher levels of the M1 genes IL-1β, IL-6, IL-12, IL-23, and inducible NO synthase owing to enhanced transcriptional activation and chromatin modifications. SOCS3-deficient M1 macrophages also have a stronger capacity to induce Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation than M1 macrophages from SOCS3fl/fl mice. Lastly, LPS-induced sepsis is exacerbated in LysMCre-SOCS3fl/fl mice and is associated with enhanced STAT1/3 activation and increased plasma levels of M1 cytokines/chemokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, CCL3, CCL4, and CXCL11. These findings collectively indicate that SOCS3 is involved in repressing the M1 proinflammatory phenotype, thereby deactivating inflammatory responses in macrophages.

TGF-β Promotes Th17 Cell Development through Inhibition of SOCS3

TGF-β, together with IL-6 and IL-21, promotes Th17 cell development. IL-6 and IL-21 induce activation of STAT3, which is crucial for Th17 cell differentiation, as well as the expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)3, a major negative feedback regulator of STAT3-activating cytokines that negatively regulates Th17 cells. However, it is still largely unclear how TGF-β regulates Th17 cell development and which TGF-β signaling pathway is involved in Th17 cell development. In this report, we demonstrate that TGF-β inhibits IL-6- and IL-21-induced SOCS3 expression, thus enhancing as well as prolonging STAT3 activation in naive CD4+CD25− T cells. TGF-β inhibits IL-6-induced SOCS3 promoter activity in T cells. Also, SOCS3 small interfering RNA knockdown partially compensates for the action of TGF-β on Th17 cell development. In mice with a dominant-negative form of TGF-β receptor II and impaired TGF-β signaling, IL-6-induced CD4+ T cell expression of SOCS3 is higher whereas STAT3 activation is lower compared with wild-type B6 CD4+ T cells. The addition of a TGF-β receptor I kinase inhibitor that blocks Smad-dependent TGF-β signaling greatly, but not completely, abrogates the effect of TGF-β on Th17 cell differentiation. Our data indicate that inhibition of SOCS3 and, thus, enhancement of STAT3 activation is at least one of the mechanisms of TGF-β promotion of Th17 cell development.

Transcriptional Suppression of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Gene Expression by IFN-γ and IFN-β: Critical Role of STAT-1α

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases that play crucial roles in proteolytic degradation of the extracellular matrix. Aberrant expression of the 92-kDa type IV collagenase (MMP-9) is implicated in the invasion and angiogenesis process of malignant tumors and in inflammatory diseases of the CNS. We investigated the effects of IFN-γ and IFN-β, cytokines used for treating some cancers and multiple sclerosis, on MMP-9 expression in human astroglioma and fibrosarcoma cell lines and primary astrocytes. Our results demonstrate that IFN-γ and IFN-β significantly inhibit MMP-9 enzymatic activity and protein expression that is induced by PMA and the cytokine TNF-α. The inhibitory effects of IFN-γ and IFN-β on MMP-9 expression correlate with decreased steady state MMP-9 mRNA levels and suppression of MMP-9 promoter activity. IFN-γ- and IFN-β-mediated inhibition of MMP-9 gene expression is dependent on the transcription factor STAT-1α, since IFN-γ and IFN-β fail to suppress MMP-9 expression in STAT-1α-deficient primary astrocytes and human fibrosarcoma cells. Reconstitution of human STAT-1α successfully restores the inhibitory effects of IFN-γ and IFN-β on MMP-9 gene expression. Thus, these data demonstrate the critical role of STAT-1α in IFN-γ and IFN-β suppression of MMP-9 gene expression.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription-3/suppressor of cytokine signaling-3 (STAT3/SOCS3) axis in myeloid cells regulates neuroinflammation

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are feedback inhibitors of the JAK/STAT pathway. SOCS3 has a crucial role in inhibiting STAT3 activation, cytokine signaling, and inflammatory gene expression in macrophages/microglia. To determine the role of SOCS3 in myeloid cells in neuroinflammation, mice with conditional SOCS3 deletion in myeloid cells (LysMCre-SOCS3fl/fl) were tested for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The myeloid-specific SOCS3-deficient mice are vulnerable to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-induced EAE, with a severe, nonresolving atypical form of disease. In vivo, enhanced infiltration of inflammatory cells and demyelination is prominent in the cerebellum of myeloid-specific SOCS3-deficient mice, as is enhanced STAT3 signaling and expression of inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and an immune response dominated by Th1 and Th17 cells. In vitro, SOCS3-deficient macrophages exhibit heightened STAT3 activation and are polarized toward the classical M1 phenotype. SOCS3-deficient M1 macrophages provide the microenvironment to polarize Th1 and Th17 cells and induce neuronal death. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of M2 macrophages into myeloid SOCS3-deficient mice leads to delayed onset and reduced severity of atypical EAE by decreasing STAT3 activation, Th1/Th17 cells, and proinflammatory mediators in the cerebellum. These findings indicate that myeloid cell SOCS3 provides protection from EAE through deactivation of neuroinflammatory responses.

Molecular mechanism of lipopolysaccharide-induced SOCS-3 gene expression in macrophages and microglia.

Immunological activation of macrophages/microglia within the CNS leads to the production of cytokines and chemokines that ultimately impact on glial and neuronal function. Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are negative regulators of adaptive and innate immune responses. Our previous studies demonstrated that SOCS-3 attenuates macrophage/microglial activation in vitro, suggesting that SOCS-3 may exert beneficial effects for immune-mediated CNS diseases in vivo. In this study, we describe LPS as a potent inducer of SOCS-3 transcription and expression in macrophages/microglia. An analysis of the SOCS-3 promoter indicates that AP-1 and IFN-γ activation sequence (GAS) elements are involved in LPS-induced SOCS-3 transcription. LPS-induced SOCS-3 expression was diminished in IL-10-deficient macrophages at later time points, indicating the involvement of endogenous IL-10 in this response. Blocking STAT-3 expression and activation using STAT-3 small interfering RNA reduced LPS-induced SOCS-3 gene expression. LPS activated the MAPK-ERK1/2, JNK, and p38 pathways that, in addition to STAT-3, were also involved in LPS-induced SOCS-3 expression. LPS treatment of cells led to the acetylation of histones H3 and H4 on the SOCS-3 promoter and the recruitment of STAT-3, c-Jun, c-Fos, CREB-binding protein, p300, and RNA polymerase II to the endogenous SOCS-3 promoter in a time-dependent manner. These results indicate that LPS-induced MAPK activation, the production of endogenous IL-10, and STAT-3 activation play critical roles in SOCS-3 expression, which provides for feedback attenuation of cytokine-induced immune and inflammatory responses in macrophages and microglia.

Th17 Cells Induce Colitis and Promote Th1 Cell Responses through IL-17 Induction of Innate IL-12 and IL-23 Production

Both Th1 and Th17 cells have been implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease and experimental colitis. However, the complex relationship between Th1 and Th17 cells and their relative contributions to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease have not been completely analyzed. Although it has been recently shown that Th17 cells can convert into Th1 cells, the underlying in vivo mechanisms and the role of Th1 cells converted from Th17 cells in the pathogenesis of colitis are still largely unknown. In this study, we report that Th17 cells from CBir1 TCR transgenic mice, which are specific for an immunodominant microbiota Ag, are more potent than Th1 cells in the induction of colitis, as Th17 cells induced severe colitis, whereas Th1 cells induced mild colitis when transferred into TCRβxδ−/− mice. High levels of IL-12 and IL-23 and substantial numbers of IFN-γ+ Th1 cells emerged in the colons of Th17 cell recipients. Administration of anti–IL-17 mAb abrogated Th17 cell-induced colitis development, blocked colonic IL-12 and IL-23 production, and inhibited IFN-γ+ Th1 cell induction. IL-17 promoted dendritic cell production of IL-12 and IL-23. Furthermore, conditioned media from colonic tissues of colitic Th17 cell recipients induced IFN-γ production by Th17 cells, which was inhibited by blockade of IL-12 and IL-23. Collectively, these data indicate that Th17 cells convert to Th1 cells through IL-17 induction of mucosal innate IL-12 and IL-23 production.

IL-17 Enhancement of the IL-6 Signaling Cascade in Astrocytes

Astrocytes have important physiological roles in CNS homeostasis and serve as a bridge between the CNS and immune system. IL-17 and IL-6 are important in many CNS disorders characterized by neuroinflammation. We examined the role of IL-17 on the IL-6 signaling cascade in primary astrocytes. IL-17 functioned in a synergistic manner with IL-6 to induce IL-6 expression in astrocytes. The synergistic effect involved numerous signaling pathways including NF-κB, JNK MAPK, and p38 MAPK. The NF-κB pathway inhibitor BAY-11, JNK inhibitor JNKi II, and p38 inhibitor SB203580 suppressed the synergistic effect of IL-6 and IL-17 on IL-6 expression. IL-17 synergized with IL-6 to enhance the recruitment of activated NF-κB p65, c-Fos, c-Jun, and the histone acetyltransferases CREB-binding protein and p300 to the IL-6 promoter in vivo to induce IL-6 transcription. This was accompanied by enhanced acetylation of histones H3 and H4 on the IL-6 promoter. Moreover, we elucidated an important role for suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 3 in IL-17 enhancement of IL-6 signaling in astrocytes. SOCS3 small interfering RNA knockdown and SOCS3 deletion in astrocytes augmented the synergistic effect of IL-6 and IL-17 due to an enhancement of activation of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways. These results indicate that astrocytes can serve as a target of Th17 cells and IL-17 in the CNS, and SOCS3 participates in IL-17 functions in the CNS as a negative feedback regulator.

IL-10 Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide-Induced CD40 Gene Expression through Induction of Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling-3

Costimulation between T cells and APCs is required for adaptive immune responses. CD40, an important costimulatory molecule, is expressed on a variety of cell types, including macrophages and microglia. The aberrant expression of CD40 is implicated in diseases including multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease, and inhibition of CD40 signaling has beneficial effects in a number of animal models of autoimmune diseases. In this study, we discovered that IL-10, a cytokine with anti-inflammatory properties, inhibits LPS-induced CD40 gene expression. We previously demonstrated that LPS induction of CD40 in macrophages/microglia involves both NF-κB activation and LPS-induced production of IFN-β, which subsequently activates STAT-1α. IL-10 inhibits LPS-induced IFN-β gene expression and subsequent STAT-1α activation, but does not affect NF-κB activation. Our results also demonstrate that IL-10 inhibits LPS-induced recruitment of STAT-1α, RNA polymerase II, and the coactivators CREB binding protein and p300 to the CD40 promoter, as well as inhibiting permissive histone H3 acetylation (AcH3). IL-10 and LPS synergize to induce suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS)-3 gene expression in macrophages and microglia. Ectopic expression of SOCS-3 attenuates LPS-induced STAT activation, and inhibits LPS-induced CD40 gene expression, comparable to that seen by IL-10. These results indicate that SOCS-3 plays an important role in the negative regulation of LPS-induced CD40 gene expression by IL-10.

Expression and Functional Significance of SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 in Astrocytes

Astrocytes play a number of important physiological roles in CNS homeostasis. Inflammation stimulates astrocytes to secrete cytokines and chemokines that guide macrophages/microglia and T cells to sites of injury/inflammation. Herein, we describe how these processes are controlled by the suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins, a family of proteins that negatively regulate adaptive and innate immune responses. In this study, we describe that the immunomodulatory cytokine IFN-β induces SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 expression in primary astrocytes at the transcriptional level. SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 transcriptional activity is induced by IFN-β through IFN-γ activation site (GAS) elements within their promoters. Studies in STAT-1α-deficient astrocytes indicate that STAT-1α is required for IFN-β-induced SOCS-1 expression, while STAT-3 small interfering RNA studies demonstrate that IFN-β-induced SOCS-3 expression relies on STAT-3 activation. Specific small interfering RNA inhibition of IFN-β-inducible SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 in astrocytes enhances their proinflammatory responses to IFN-β stimulation, such as heightened expression of the chemokines CCL2 (MCP-1), CCL3 (MIP-1α), CCL4 (MIP-1β), CCL5 (RANTES), and CXCL10 (IP-10), and promoting chemotaxis of macrophages and CD4+ T cells. These results indicate that IFN-β induces SOCS-1 and SOCS-3 in primary astrocytes to attenuate its own chemokine-related inflammation in the CNS.