Hyungil Harry Kwon

Motives and Points of Attachment of Professional Golf Spectators

Although professional golf has emerged as a leading spectator sport during the 20th century, there has been little research examining the consumption behaviour of those who attend tournaments across the three professional tours in North America. The purpose of this study was to examine whether the motives as measured by the Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption and points of attachment as measured by the Point of Attachment Index differed by gender and/or the tour event watched, after controlling for age and employment status. The relationship between motives and points of attachment was also examined. Data were collected at a PGA, an LPGA and a PGA Senior Tour event on each day of each tournament. A 2 (gender) x 3 (tour) multivariate analysis of covariance procedure on each of the areas (motives and points of attachment) was conducted. Finally, multivariate multiple regression analysis was used to predict a combined set of dependent variables (points of attachment) from a combined set of predictors (motives). The MANCOVA procedure for the motive factors indicated that the interaction effect was significant but the amount of variance explained was small. The multivariate analysis of covariance procedure for the motive factors indicated that the main effects of spectator and gender were significant as was the interaction effect but the amount of variance explained by each independent variable and the interaction was small. There was also a significant but small association between the dependent variables and the covariates of age and employment status. The MANCOVA procedure for the points of attachment factors also indicated that the interaction effect was significant but the amount of variance explained was minimal. The multivariate analysis of covariance procedure for the points of attachment factors also indicated that the main effects of spectator gender and tour were significant. The interaction effect was also significant but the amount of variance explained by each independent variable and the interaction was minimal. There was a significant but small association between the covariate of age but not between employment status and the dependent variables. The multivariate multiple regression procedure indicated that the motives were significantly related to the points of attachment and the variance explained was large. Specifically, vicarious achievement explained a moderate to large amount of variance in identification with a golfer, tour and hosting community. Based on all of this information, marketing plans do not need to differ based on the tour and the primary focus should be on a specific golfer or set of golfers who are playing in the event.

The Feasibility of Single-Item Measures in Sport Loyalty Research

Researchers in disciplines other than sport have attempted to make a case for single-item measures of cognitive and affective dimensions in instances when simplicity, brevity, or global measurement is of paramount importance. This study compared and contrasted two separate multiple-item measures to two single-item measures referent to two specified constructs: (1) affective commitment to a team, represented by the Psychological Commitment to Team scale, and (2) team identification represented by the Team Identification Index. Data were collected from 146 college students (72 men and 74 women) at a large American university. It was determined that multiple-item scales had the advantage of breadth of measurement and scale, and that single-item scales had the advantage of simplicity and brevity or ease of use. The study also examined one of the greatest criticisms of single-item measures and one of the greatest advantages of the multiple-item scales: reliability and concurrent validity. The Team Identification Index had better reliability (0.92 vs. 0.83) but explained less variance in behavioural items than its referent single-item measure. The Psychological Commitment to Team had better reliability (0.96 vs. 0.90) and explained more variance than its referent single-item measure. In general, all single-item measures should be tested before use and only used in certain circumstances. Specifically for the Team Identification Index and the Psychological Commitment to Team scale, sport marketers may be able to use the referent single-item measures in certain situations.

The mediating effect of perceived quality between extrinsic cues and perceived value in ski products.

The purpose of the study was to confirm the mediating effect of perceived quality in the relationship between two extrinsic cues (brand name and country of origin)and perceived value previously tested by Teas and Agarwal (2000) using more rigorous statistical techniques - regression analysis and structural equation modelling (SEM) - in a sports consumption context. Data were collected from 194 members of the Korea University Ski Team Association. Based on the results, the partially mediated model was selected as the best fitting model. From a marketing perspective, ski marketers need to understand that the two extrinsic cues had direct and indirect influences through perceived quality on perceived value of the ski product.

How does advertising through sport work? Evidence from college students in Singapore

Abstract The purpose of this study was twofold. First, the researchers compared consumers’ attitude towards four different types of advertising (i.e. advertising through sport, advertising in general, television commercials and online advertising) to see if advertising through sport was perceived as a more positive way of advertising than other types of advertising. Second, the researchers attempted to pinpoint which advertising beliefs influenced consumers’ attitude towards advertising through sport. In Phase 1 (N = 263), paired-sample t-tests revealed that the respondents’ attitude towards advertising through sport was significantly more positive than their attitudes towards advertising in general, television commercials and online advertising. Next, with data-set 2 (n = 210), the proposed relationships between beliefs and attitude were tested using structural equation modelling (SEM). The SEM revealed that two beliefs of product information and hedonism/pleasure significantly influenced attitude towards advertising through sport. The findings of the study provide an insightful foundation for understanding the development of consumers’ attitude towards advertising through sport and guide practical implications for marketing and advertising practices.

Testing for factorial invariance of the Modified Leadership Scale for Sports: using a Japanese version

The objective of this study was to provide empirical evidence to support psychometric properties of a modified four-dimensional model of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS). The study tested invariance of all parameters (i.e., factor loadings, error variances, and factor variances–covariances) in the four-dimensional measurement model between two groups of student-athletes. For testing multi-group invariance of the proposed scale, 335 middle school and 320 high school student-athletes in Japan participated in this study. The modified version of the LSS consists of 35 items representing training instruction, democratic behaviour, positive feedback, and social support. A chi-square difference test was employed for model comparisons. The results supported configural, metric, scalar and factor variance–covariance invariance in the modified LSS across the two student-athlete groups.

An examination of Oliver’s product loyalty framework

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to test Oliver’s two-dimension (fortitude and community/social support) product loyalty framework. Design/methodology/approach – Oliver categorized each of the two dimensions into high and low, creating a two-by-two framework: low fortitude and low-community/social support (Product Superiority group); low fortitude and high-community/social support (Village Envelopment group); high fortitude and low-community/social support (Determined Self-isolation group); high fortitude and high-community/social support (Immersed Self-identity group). The paper uses two samples. The sample from Study 1 was season ticket holders (n=199) of a West Coast (USA) Major League Baseball team. Results indicated preliminary support for Oliver’s four groups and good psychometric properties of the fan community scale and the individual fortitude scale (IFS). Study 2 focussed on attendees (n=458) at two East Coast (USA) Major League Baseball venues. Findings – The multivariate GLM indicated si...

The mediating role of perceived value in two different price settings.

This study investigates the mediating effect of perceived value in the relationship between team identification and purchase intention towards licensed apparel within two different price settings (market price and 40% above market price). Considering adaptation level theory, cognitive dissonance theory and dual information processing, it is hypothesised that team identification will directly influence purchase intention when the price of a product decreases. Two models (partial mediation and full mediation) were constructed in each price setting and tested using structural equation modelling (SEM). The results indicate that the partial mediation model better fits the data for the 70,000 Won setting and the full mediation model was a better fit for the 90,000 Won setting.