I. Wellard

Men, sport, body performance and the maintenance of ‘exclusive masculinity’

Participation in sport remains an activity dominated by a particular form of masculinity based on competitiveness, aggression and elements of traditional understandings of the sporting male. At the same time, contemporary society continues to ascribe greater cultural capital to those who display evidence of this in their bodily practices. Those who approach sport have to negotiate these elements and it is their relationship to this particular understanding which influences their level of participation. Gender, sexuality, age and physical ability are foremost in creating bridges or barriers to achieving individual bodily expression through organized sport There is a need to assess the nature of sport participation in contemporary culture and highlight the task of academic research to become more active in confronting the wider social issues which invariably exclude a large number of the population from enjoying sport and their bodies. The arguments developed in this chapter have been drawn from research conducted among male participants of sports clubs (gay and straight) in the South East of England. Using oral accounts and observation, the nature of gender performance within the sports field is assessed in relation to the wider inequalities faced by various sections of society. Feminist research and the more recent branches of research found in Sociology and Cultural Studies have highlighted the disadvantages experienced by women in general, but at the same time prevalent forms of what I term ‘exclusive masculinity’ remain to an extent unchallenged and this is particularly evident within sport.

Developing a physical activity legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: a policy-led systematic review

Aims: There is no evidence that previous Olympic Games have raised physical activity levels in adult populations. However, it may be premature to assume that this lack of previous evidence for an inherent effect is an indication that there is no potential to proactively harness the Games to generate a physical activity or sport legacy. Given that the political goal of achieving a physical activity legacy had already been set, the policy-led aim of this systematic review was to examine the processes by which the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games might deliver a physical activity (as opposed to sport) legacy. Methods: Searches were conducted on five databases: SPORTS DISCUS, CINAHL, PsychINFO, MEDLINE and Web of Knowledge. Results: There are two key findings: first, that communities that are not positively engaged with hosting the 2012 Games in London are likely to be beyond the reach of any initiatives seeking to harness the Games to develop legacies in any area; second, major events such as London 2012 can, if promoted in the right way, generate a ‘festival effect’ that may have the potential to be harnessed to promote physical activity among the least active. The ‘festival effect’ derives from the promotion of the 2012 Games as a national festival that is bigger than and beyond sport, but that is also rooted in the lives of local and cultural communities, thus creating a strong desire to participate in some way in an event that is both nationally significant and locally or culturally relevant. Conclusions: Physical activity policy makers and professionals should seek to satisfy this desire to participate through providing physical activity (rather than sport) opportunities presented as fun community events or programmes. The key to generating a physical activity legacy among the least active adults through this process is to de-emphasise the sporting element of the 2012 Games and promote the festival element.

Able bodies and sport participation: social constructions of physical ability for gendered and sexually identified bodies

Although there is much debate about the positive effects of active sporting pursuits for the young, in reality many young people are still excluded or deterred from taking part as much as they would like. There are still particular bodily performances which are considered more suitable for taking part in mainstream sport, and invariably one of the determining factors relates to gendered performances which extol competitive, aggressive masculinity. Sporting activities during childhood and school are often considered either enjoyable or unpleasant depending upon the individuals success, or not, in ‘making the grade’ during sporting activities through their ability to perform appropriate masculinity or ‘exclusive masculinity’. The article draws on recent research into body practices, masculinities and sport. A range of men who actively participated in mainstream and gay tennis clubs were interviewed about their experiences of sporting activity throughout their lives. A factor which emerged from their adult readings of their childhood experiences of sport was the uniform enjoyment of engaging in physical activity. However, the mens ability to participate fully was more reliant upon specific bodily performances which were considered an essential aspect of mainstream sport and physical education. The article aims to highlight the importance of recognising the social factors which shape the way in which individuals are allowed to approach sport and ultimately, enjoy their bodies to the best of their abilities.

Body-Reflexive Pleasures: Exploring Bodily Experiences within the Context of Sport and Physical Activity.

The contribution of sport and physical activity in achieving wellbeing has received much attention in relation to children and adults, although consideration of the physical aspects of bodily pleasure have tended to be ignored in favour of developing health related measures. In physical education, the physical body has been further ‘disembodied’ through a focus upon health-based ‘outcomes’ (such as tackling obesity) and what could be considered a ‘fear of fun’. However, pleasure does not necessarily have to be selfish and hedonistic and, ultimately, it could be claimed that undue focus upon psychological ‘wellbeing’ and outcome driven curriculum policy restricts the potential for individual accomplishment and learning about the possibilities of the physical body. This paper incorporates the concept of body-reflexive practices, as initially described by Connell, in order to explore the notion of body reflexive pleasures which incorporate the individual as well as the social context. Drawing upon previous and current research exploring bodily pleasure, fun and enjoyment as a factor in sporting participation, it is suggested that physical experiences in sport and physical activity need to be understood at both the individual and the social level—at a specific time, as well as a later positive reflection.

'A shock of electricity just sort of goes through my body': physical activity and embodied reflexive practices in young female ballet dancers

Participation in physical activities, in and out of school, remains heavily influenced by social constructions of gendered behaviour. In addition, the body plays a significant part in the presentation of legitimate performances of physical practice and the construction of a physical ‘identity’. The consequence is that in formalized activities many girls (and boys) are provided little chance to experience the pleasurable aspects of physical activity, as well as the added benefits of bodily confidence and knowledge. We suggest that the association of dance with other artistic forms of expression provides an opportunity to contest taken for granted assumptions about sport and physical education. The material for this paper was drawn from observations and interviews conducted with young, female dancers, aged between 9‐ and 11‐years‐old, at an internationally renowned ballet school in London.

Re-thinking abilities

The papers featured in this edition provide a much-needed opportunity to reflect upon the ways in which ability is understood and, importantly, acted upon. The consequences of which become increasingly significant if considered in relation to current practices found in school sports and physical education (PE). Although it becomes apparent that there is a range of interpretations of ability, what is also highlighted is the lack of a specific focus or direction in terms of developing effective, purposeful physical education. This lack of clarity can be attributed to many factors. Distinctions between sport and PE are often blurred (Lee, 2004) with the effect that there are distorted and conflicting understandings of their roles. This is particularly evident within PE, where competing values of sport and PE are interlaced with contrasting accounts of what education should entail for the student. Added to this, more recent government debate has been about the role of PE within the curriculum and beyond, with the focus upon policy driven ‘health’ targets for young people and developing talented sports stars of the future (Houlihan & Green, 2006). At the same time there has been a growing body of work which applies a more critical focus upon the discriminatory practices inherent in many forms of sport and particularly within the school setting (Paechter, 2003; Evans, 2004; Hunter, 2004; Wellard, 2006). Much of this criticism is aimed at the lack of recognition of the social factors which play such an important part in the construction of those who are considered ‘able’ to take part in school sports. The focus in schools upon who is able, or ‘more suited’ to taking part creates a situation where many young people are discriminated against on the ground of their bodily performances rather than upon their willingness to take part (Wellard, 2006). As Fernandez-Balboa dramatically suggests, these attitudes constitute ‘poisonous pedagogies’ (2003, p. 146) which are adopted without critical reflection. Hay and Hunter echo these critical perspectives when they apply Bourdieu’s concept of symbolic violence within the context of school PE. They argue that,

A systematic review and meta-analyses of the potential local economic impact of tourism and leisure cycling and the development of an Evidence-Based Market Segmentation

Through a systematic review and meta-analyses of worldwide evidence, this article provides estimates for spend per person per day of overnight (£43.33), non-overnight (£7.95), and all (£13.38) tourism and leisure cyclists. A further meta-analysis to inform local policy, provision, and local economic impact strategies provides evidence for seven tourism and leisure cycling market segments (Near Residents, Far Residents, Near Day Trippers, Far Day Trippers, Near Holidayers, Far Holidayers, Cycle Tourers), and their associated behaviors and spending patterns. Over three quarters of economic activity attributable to tourism and leisure cycling (77%) is shown to be derived from cycling tourism, thus representing additional local economic impact. In conclusion, the use of market segmentation to derive local economic impact estimates is discussed. The importance of considering how far cycling tourism affects trip decisions, rather than whether cycling tourism is the prime trip purpose, is highlighted in deriving robust economic impact estimates. Finally, because the Cycle Tourers market segment contributes less than 2% of market volume and value, future research might usefully focus on less dedicated but more prevalent casual recreationalist cyclists, who are interested in shorter trips, with more stops for refreshments and socializing, and who often travel in family groups.

Starting points and destinations: negotiating factual and fictional pathways: a response to Gilbourne, Jones and Jordan

This paper provides a response to questions which emerged when reading Gilbourne et als paper, questions it is suggested which compel us to go back to the very heart of what critical social science is (or can be) about. Central to this debate is the extent to which a perceived starting point in any investigation has implications upon the directions the research may take, especially if the intention is to achieve social change. It is suggested that Gilbourne et als strategy to create a ‘fictional’ story about an individual conflicts with their attempt to observe an empirical reality and ultimately engage in critical social science. Although it is acknowledged that recognising subjectivity in terms of the reflexive stance of the researcher within the research process is crucial in social science, making the researcher the focus of the research does however significantly distort the possibilities for observing empirical reality. Whilst it is also considered that fiction, personal reflection and creative processes are all essential elements in any learning process, the argument suggested in this response is that they must be contextualised within social reality. Indeed, if social reality is to be the focus for critical enquiry then legitimate attempts must be made to acknowledge the contrasting directions certain theoretical and methodological frames will lead. The suggestion is that if critical change is the main agenda, we need to identify what it is we want to change and in doing so must prioritise the social world of others.

Sporting equality and gender neutrality in korfball

Abstract This paper explores the extent to which korfball can be considered egalitarian. The intention of this research was to use ethnographic methods to discover the ways in which gender was negotiated, challenged or recreated in a junior korfball setting and examine to what extent korfball provided an opportunity to promote gender egalitarianism. Analysis of the data incorporated a broad Foucauldian lens and subsequently revealed that sex equality was visible to some degree in the junior korfball space. From observations and interviews, it was clear that male domination was rarely evident when considering the vocal nature of the game, the physicality and competitiveness of players, or their general ability and skill, yet when interviewed players still constructed gender in traditional ways. Nevertheless, korfball was seen to offer a space where there were possibilities for sporting equality although the influence that the sport had beyond the court was less apparent.

Whose Body is it Anyway?: A Sociological Reflection upon Fitness and Wellbeing

There is a widespread interest in wellbeing, the healthy body and public health. However, there are also many simplistic and uncritical interpretations of what wellbeing or a healthy body should ‘look like’. By focusing upon wellbeing through examples taken from fitness related activities, which are often considered unproblematic routes to achieving wellbeing and greater public health, this book explores contemporary understandings of the body and the conflicting ways in which it is considered, in different contexts, times and spaces, either as the possession of the individual or that of society (or both). The book adopts an embodied approach, employing sociological theory along with examples drawn from empirical research collected through participation (by the author) in an intense period of physical training. The intention is to explore the embodied experiences of ‘doing’ an intensive period of physical activity and, subsequently, attempt to understand, in more depth, the range of personal, social, psychological and physical factors that undoubtedly contribute to engaging in such an activity. The emerging story reveals much about the physical and emotional experience of a body being put through intensive exercise. Not only in terms of contrasting forms of pleasure and pain, but also various socio-cultural ‘issues’ relating to relationships of power, trust and the role of ‘expert’ health advisor. Indeed, while there is growing support for exercise as a form of ‘medicine’, embodied approaches that recognise subjective experience may provide a note of caution to simplistic messages that suggest physical activity is an automatic route to achieving wellbeing and health. Consequently, this book reveals some of the limitations of current thinking about the body and appeals for more reflective, embodied investigation, analysis and theoretical explanation of the moving body.