S. Dowse

Developing a physical activity legacy from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games: a policy-led systematic review

Aims: There is no evidence that previous Olympic Games have raised physical activity levels in adult populations. However, it may be premature to assume that this lack of previous evidence for an inherent effect is an indication that there is no potential to proactively harness the Games to generate a physical activity or sport legacy. Given that the political goal of achieving a physical activity legacy had already been set, the policy-led aim of this systematic review was to examine the processes by which the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games might deliver a physical activity (as opposed to sport) legacy. Methods: Searches were conducted on five databases: SPORTS DISCUS, CINAHL, PsychINFO, MEDLINE and Web of Knowledge. Results: There are two key findings: first, that communities that are not positively engaged with hosting the 2012 Games in London are likely to be beyond the reach of any initiatives seeking to harness the Games to develop legacies in any area; second, major events such as London 2012 can, if promoted in the right way, generate a ‘festival effect’ that may have the potential to be harnessed to promote physical activity among the least active. The ‘festival effect’ derives from the promotion of the 2012 Games as a national festival that is bigger than and beyond sport, but that is also rooted in the lives of local and cultural communities, thus creating a strong desire to participate in some way in an event that is both nationally significant and locally or culturally relevant. Conclusions: Physical activity policy makers and professionals should seek to satisfy this desire to participate through providing physical activity (rather than sport) opportunities presented as fun community events or programmes. The key to generating a physical activity legacy among the least active adults through this process is to de-emphasise the sporting element of the 2012 Games and promote the festival element.

A missed opportunity waiting to happen? The social legacy potential of the London 2012 Paralympic Games

Since the Games of the XXXth Olympiad in 2012 were awarded to the city of London on 6th July 2005, there has been extensive policy discussion about the potential to develop ‘legacy’ from the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The potential for such legacy has been discussed across a range of sectors and is perceived, by the actors in the 2012 planning process at least, to have the potential to benefit the whole of the UK, not just the city of London. Of course, a project as large (and as expensive for taxpayers) as hosting and planning to benefit from the Olympic and Paralympic Games stimulates discussion beyond the immediate policy actors involved. The written and print media, national and local government, commercial and not-for-profit interest groups, and the public at large have all shown a considerable interest in what has inevitably come to be a significant national project. As part of a recent Economic and Social Research Council supported investigation into potential regional legacies of the Games, Smith and Weed (2009) suggested that there are a wide range of official and oppositional ‘Olympic Narratives’ in circulation, each developed to serve the interests of particular interest groups and actors. However, notwithstanding the range of actors commenting on the 2012 Games, the dominant public discourse has been about the potential to develop economic legacies (New Economics Foundation, 2008; PWC/DCMS, 2005). In this climate, opportunities relating to the Paralympic Games, perhaps because they are perceived to have less economic potential, have only rarely been discussed. Yet, just as the Olympic Games can offer opportunities to promote culture, health, sport and community and social wellbeing in the four years up to 2012 (Weed et al., 2009), so there are likely to be specific opportunities offered by the Paralympic Games to advance the social wellbeing of disabled people in all aspects of their lives, and to underpin this by enhancing positive attitudes towards disability among the population as a whole. The London 2012 Candidate File (LOCOG, 2004, p. 189) suggests that the Paralympic Games can ‘build respect ... for disabled people by changing society’s perceptions’; however, this initial statement is followed by aspirations to motivate disabled young people ‘to become involved with sport and to aspire to elite performance’ and to ‘train UK Paralympians, coaches, Technical Officials and volunteers who will dramatically advance Paralympic sport’ (p. 193). This trend of stating

A systematic review and meta-analyses of the potential local economic impact of tourism and leisure cycling and the development of an Evidence-Based Market Segmentation

Through a systematic review and meta-analyses of worldwide evidence, this article provides estimates for spend per person per day of overnight (£43.33), non-overnight (£7.95), and all (£13.38) tourism and leisure cyclists. A further meta-analysis to inform local policy, provision, and local economic impact strategies provides evidence for seven tourism and leisure cycling market segments (Near Residents, Far Residents, Near Day Trippers, Far Day Trippers, Near Holidayers, Far Holidayers, Cycle Tourers), and their associated behaviors and spending patterns. Over three quarters of economic activity attributable to tourism and leisure cycling (77%) is shown to be derived from cycling tourism, thus representing additional local economic impact. In conclusion, the use of market segmentation to derive local economic impact estimates is discussed. The importance of considering how far cycling tourism affects trip decisions, rather than whether cycling tourism is the prime trip purpose, is highlighted in deriving robust economic impact estimates. Finally, because the Cycle Tourers market segment contributes less than 2% of market volume and value, future research might usefully focus on less dedicated but more prevalent casual recreationalist cyclists, who are interested in shorter trips, with more stops for refreshments and socializing, and who often travel in family groups.

Sport mega-events, the ‘non-West’ and the ethics of event hosting

Abstract Events and sports events are perceived as having the potential to contribute to a number of benefits for the host country and its communities. The socio-political and economic environment of the host is an important consideration for both prospective hosts and event owners when allocating hosting rights. It is therefore, unsurprising that concerns have been raised over the relatively recent relocation of events to developing countries which, by their nature, frequently lack the economic, political and social stability of the traditional industrialized host. Developing nations are less affluent and arguably less prepared to deliver large scale sports events than developed nations. Therefore, this paper asks, ‘are governing bodies, when equipped with this knowledge, ethically obliged to withhold hosting rights from developing countries?’ The paper argues that denying sovereign States the right to make their own decisions would appear to compound the disadvantaged status of countries that mega-event hosting is perceived to address. The paper contends that event hosts – particularly those in the developing world – are potentially vulnerable to exploitation by the event owner.

Mega-sporting events and children’s rights and interests – towards a better future.

Abstract The public subsidy of Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup hosting opportunities is invariably justified on the basis that they will secure a range of public good outcomes. Problematically, the information available inspires less confidence that these ambitions will be met and highlights how social costs and benefits are unevenly distributed. As a result, interest in the social dimension of hosting has grown, yet the knowledge to support responsive and evidence-based events policy remains relatively underdeveloped, particularly in relation to the specific needs and experiences of affected communities. The impact on children as a particularly stakeholder group reflects this context of recognition and knowledge gap. For example, while it is accepted that immovable deadlines and risk of reputational consequences raise a variety of social justice concerns throughout the event lifecycle, the nature and scale of these impacts on children is poorly understood and frequently mismanaged. Findings drawn from research commissioned by Terre des Hommes International Federation which explored the intersections between children’s rights and social justice concerns highlights how such initiatives present risks and opportunities that cannot be managed effectively until children are included within associated planning processes as a specific stakeholder group with distinct needs and interests.

The relationships between cycle tourism and sustainable transport in the UK

The use of both sustainable transport outcomes and tourism impacts as a mixed justification for investment in cycling infrastructure has led to the two often being seen as synonymous. The environmentally friendly credentials of cycle tourism are predicated on a conceptualization of cycle tourism in which cycling as a form of transport supplants other energy-consuming and -polluting forms of transport within the tourism trip. However, using a recent meta-analysis of UK data, this research note shows that even when the environmental costs of major cycling events are excluded, in absolute terms recreational cycle tourism across its full range of forms in the UK still generates considerable motorized transport use. But, the use of counterfactual models shows that in relative terms, on average across all its forms, recreational cycle tourism in the UK reduces the use of motorized transport to get to and from destinations by 12.2% and reduces motorized transport use at destinations by 7.6%. Consequently, recreational cycle tourism in the UK does have a positive sustainable transport outcome, but this is far smaller than is often visualized.