Iain A. Greenlees

Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer

Despite the widespread use of the term “mental toughness” by performers, coaches and sport psychology consultant’s alike, it is only recently that researchers (e.g., Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) have attempted to provide some conceptual clarity to reduce the confusion surrounding the understanding and operationalization of the concept. As reported by Jones et al. (2002), mental toughness has been construed to represent a variety of positive responses to situations which have included the ability to persist and refuse to give in (Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987), overcome setbacks and poor performances (Goldberg, 1998), cope with excessive pressure (Goldberg, 1998) and to not let adverse situations affect performance (Gould et al., 1987). In reviewing the literature, Jones et al. (2002) suggested mentally tough performers to hold several key attributes, which enable them to experience positive psychological states. Examples of these include commitment and determination (Bull, Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996), motivation and control (Gould et al., 1987), excellent concentration and focusing abilities (Goldberg, 1998) and, confidence and self-belief (Goldberg, 1998).

Using Psychological Skills Training to Develop Soccer Performance

The present study examined the effects of a soccer, midfielder-specific psychological skills intervention comprising relaxation, imagery and self-talk on position-specific performance measures. Using a multiple-baseline-across-individuals design, five participants had three per-formance subcomponents assessed across nine competitive matches. The results of the study indicated the position-specific intervention to enable at least small improvements on the three dependent variables for each participant. Social validation data indicated all participants to perceive the intervention as being successful and appropriate to their needs. The findings provide further evidence to suggest the efficacy of sport, and position-specific interventions. Suggestions for future research are provided.

Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective

Abstract We examined the varying performance and organizational stressors experienced by coaches who operate with elite athletes. Following interviews with eleven coaches, content analysis of the data revealed coaches to experience comparable numbers of performance and organizational stressors. Performance stressors were divided between their own performance and that of their athletes, while organizational stressors included environmental, leadership, personal, and team factors. The findings provide evidence that coaches experience a variety of stressors that adds weight to the argument that they should be labelled as “performers” in their own right. A variety of future research topics and applied issues are also discussed.

Examining relationships between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy

Abstract The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety‐nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions and social skills, whereas character‐building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach‐related psychology.

The impact of collective efficacy beliefs on effort and persistence in a group task

Collective efficacy is an important determinant of the motivation of individuals within groups, with increases in collective efficacy producing more effort in a task and greater persistence when faced with failure. To test hypotheses concerning the impact of collective efficacy on effort and persistence, participants (n = 22) were assigned to triads (consisting of the participant and two confederates) and performed three time trials on cycle ergometers. After trial 1, the participants were assigned to either a high or low collective efficacy condition, receiving appropriate bogus performance feedback. All groups received failure feedback after trial 2. Effort was assessed by performance time and maximum heart rate (HRmax) achieved during performance. A 2 (collective efficacy condition) x 3 (trials) analysis of variance with repeated measures on trials revealed significant interaction effects for both performance time and HRmax. Fishers least significant difference post-hoc tests indicated that, following efficacy manipulation, groups low in collective efficacy significantly reduced both their performance time and HRmax, whereas groups high in collective efficacy maintained performance and HRmax. However, predictions concerning the impact of failure on persistence were not supported. Our results provide partial support for the role of collective efficacy in team sports.

An investigation of the five-factor model of personality and coping behaviour in sport

Abstract Coping strategies are important for performance in sport and individual differences may contribute to the coping strategies adopted by athletes. In this study, we explored the main and interactive effects of the big five personality dimensions on sport-related coping and compared personality profiles of discrete groups of athletes. Altogether, 253 athletes (mean age 21.1 years, s = 3.7) completed the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and the Coping Function Questionnaire for Sport (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001). Results showed that extraverted athletes, who were also emotionally stable and open to new experiences (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of problem-focused coping strategies. Conscientious athletes (main effect), and athletes displaying high levels of extraversion, openness, and agreeableness (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of emotion-focused coping strategies, and athletes with low levels of openness, or high levels of neuroticism (main effects), reported a greater use of avoidance coping strategies. Different personality characteristics were observed between higher-level and lower-level athletes, between men and women athletes, and between individual and team sport athletes. These findings suggest that the five-factor model of personality can help distinguish various levels of athletic involvement and can help identify the coping strategies athletes are likely to adopt during participation.

Personality in sport: A comprehensive review.

This review addresses personality in organised sport. We describe the extant literature that has explored personality effects on athletic success and population-based differences before hypothesising how sport participation may contribute to personality development. We then outline the role of personality in athletic interactions and group processes before considering the practical applications of personality research and avenues for future study. Our review shows that personality is an important determinant of long-term success in sport and identifies clear personality differences between individuals that participate in organised sport and individuals that do not participate in organised sport. We also observe important personality differences between sub-samples of athletes and outline the contribution of personality to intragroup relationships and team effectiveness in team sport. The interaction of genetic and environmental influences is presented as a promising avenue of inquiry that can strengthen our understanding of personality effects on sport and exercise participation and athletic success. We conclude by outlining implications for applied sport psychology.

Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts

Abstract The present study examined how elite female gymnasts developed their mental toughness. Following semistructured interviews with 10 elite performers, inductive content analysis revealed four general dimensions that contributed to the development of their mental toughness. These included the sport process, sporting personnel, nonsporting personnel, and environmental influences. Although many of the findings reflect those from previous research but within a specific sport, a unique and unexpected finding related to the cultural differences experienced by the athletes throughout their development. The findings provide further details of how mental toughness could be developed in addition to future research and applied issues being discussed

Team-referent attributions among sport performers

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russells (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.

The impact of individual efficacy beliefs on group goal selection and group goal commitment

Collective efficacy research has begun to progress from simply trying to verify the relationship between collective efficacy and performance to examining the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts on performance. To test hypotheses concerning the impact of collective efficacy on group goal selection and commitment, 24 participants were assigned to triads (consisting of the participant and two confederates) and performed two time-trials on cycle ergometers. Before each trial, the participants were asked to select both a finishing time and position goal for their group and to indicate their commitment towards these goals. After trial 1, the participants were assigned to either a high or low collective efficacy condition and received appropriate bogus performance feedback. Analysis of variance and post-hoc tests revealed that participants in the low collective efficacy group significantly reduced both finishing time and group position goals from trial 1 to trial 2, whereas participants in the high collective efficacy group maintained their goals. These results provide support for Banduras suggestions concerning the mechanisms through which collective efficacy impacts upon performance.