Richard C. Thelwell

Defining and Understanding Mental Toughness within Soccer

Despite the widespread use of the term “mental toughness” by performers, coaches and sport psychology consultant’s alike, it is only recently that researchers (e.g., Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002) have attempted to provide some conceptual clarity to reduce the confusion surrounding the understanding and operationalization of the concept. As reported by Jones et al. (2002), mental toughness has been construed to represent a variety of positive responses to situations which have included the ability to persist and refuse to give in (Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987), overcome setbacks and poor performances (Goldberg, 1998), cope with excessive pressure (Goldberg, 1998) and to not let adverse situations affect performance (Gould et al., 1987). In reviewing the literature, Jones et al. (2002) suggested mentally tough performers to hold several key attributes, which enable them to experience positive psychological states. Examples of these include commitment and determination (Bull, Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996), motivation and control (Gould et al., 1987), excellent concentration and focusing abilities (Goldberg, 1998) and, confidence and self-belief (Goldberg, 1998).

Using Psychological Skills Training to Develop Soccer Performance

The present study examined the effects of a soccer, midfielder-specific psychological skills intervention comprising relaxation, imagery and self-talk on position-specific performance measures. Using a multiple-baseline-across-individuals design, five participants had three per-formance subcomponents assessed across nine competitive matches. The results of the study indicated the position-specific intervention to enable at least small improvements on the three dependent variables for each participant. Social validation data indicated all participants to perceive the intervention as being successful and appropriate to their needs. The findings provide further evidence to suggest the efficacy of sport, and position-specific interventions. Suggestions for future research are provided.

Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective

Abstract We examined the varying performance and organizational stressors experienced by coaches who operate with elite athletes. Following interviews with eleven coaches, content analysis of the data revealed coaches to experience comparable numbers of performance and organizational stressors. Performance stressors were divided between their own performance and that of their athletes, while organizational stressors included environmental, leadership, personal, and team factors. The findings provide evidence that coaches experience a variety of stressors that adds weight to the argument that they should be labelled as “performers” in their own right. A variety of future research topics and applied issues are also discussed.

Examining relationships between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy

Abstract The study examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and coaching efficacy. Ninety‐nine coaches completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale and the Coaching Efficacy Scale with the results of the canonical correlation suggesting significant relationships between the two sets of variables. Regression analyses suggested motivation efficacy to be significantly associated with the regulation of emotions and social skills, whereas character‐building efficacy was associated with optimism. Teaching technique efficacy was significantly associated with appraisal of own emotions with no significant predictors for game strategy efficacy. When viewed collectively, results provide an insight to how emotional intelligence relates to coaching efficacy and gives an indication to where applied work with coaches may be directed. Future research suggestions are also provided in reference to coach‐related psychology.

Influence of competition on performance and pacing during cycling exercise

PURPOSE The studys purpose was to examine the influence of head-to-head (HH) competition on performance, pacing strategy, and bioenergetics during a 2000-m cycling task. METHODS Fourteen participants completed three 2000-m familiarization time trials (TTs) on a Velotron cycle ergometer, before completing an additional TT and a 2000-m simulated HH competition in a counterbalanced order. During the trials, a computer-generated image of the participants completing the 2000-m course was projected onto a screen positioned in front of the participants. Although participants believed they were competing against another individual during the HH competition, they were in fact competing against their best familiarization performance (FAM), replayed on the screen by the Velotron software. RESULTS Performance was significantly faster in HH than in FAM or TT (184.6 ± 6.2, 187.7 ± 8.2, and 188.3 ± 9.5 s, respectively). Pacing profile in HH initially matched the FAM performance but was better maintained from 1000 m until the end of exercise. The higher power output during the latter part of the test was achieved by a greater anaerobic energy contribution, whereas the aerobic energy yield remained unchanged. CONCLUSIONS HH competition encourages participants to increase their performance. This occurs primarily via an increased anaerobic energy yield, which seems to be centrally mediated, and is consistent with the concept of a physiologic reserve.

The effects of a mental skills package on 'repeatable good performance' in cricketers

Abstract Objectives : To examine the efficacy of a mental skills package to both improve consistency and level of performance in cricketers, and to investigate the influence of different performance measures on cricketing performance. Method : Semi-professional cricketers ( n =16) were matched into experimental and control groups. Cricketing performance was monitored subjectively and objectively across two seasons. Prior to the second season, the experimental group were provided with an intervention package consisting of goal-setting, activation regulation, self-talk, mental imagery and concentration. Results : Data from two, two-way multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) indicated that cricketers in the experimental group experienced improved performance consistency and improved performance when using subjective scoring procedures, but only a performance improvement was recorded using objective measures. Subsequent single-case analysis applied to the data of four of the experimental participants also revealed support for the efficacy of the intervention. Conclusions : A mental skill package was seen to be beneficial to enhance performance consistency and actual levels of performance. In view of these findings, practitioners and coaches may wish to consider both objective and subjective scoring measures to improve the sensitivity of performance indicators.

Developing mental toughness: Perceptions of elite female gymnasts

Abstract The present study examined how elite female gymnasts developed their mental toughness. Following semistructured interviews with 10 elite performers, inductive content analysis revealed four general dimensions that contributed to the development of their mental toughness. These included the sport process, sporting personnel, nonsporting personnel, and environmental influences. Although many of the findings reflect those from previous research but within a specific sport, a unique and unexpected finding related to the cultural differences experienced by the athletes throughout their development. The findings provide further details of how mental toughness could be developed in addition to future research and applied issues being discussed

Stress and coping in single-handed round-the-world ocean sailing

The present study sought to examine the various stressors faced, and associated coping strategies employed, by five single-handed sailors entered into the 2006/2007 Velux 5 Oceans round-the-world race. Interviews conducted with the skippers were transcribed and then deductively and inductively content analyzed. Skippers revealed organizational (e.g., environmental conditions, isolation, sleep deprivation), competitive (e.g., lack of progress, yacht-related problems), and personal (e.g., family-related issues) stressors. Strategies used to deal with these demands included problem- (e.g., prioritized sequential thinking), appraisal- (e.g., rationalizing situations), emotion- (e.g., using available communications), and approach-focused coping (e.g., “what if” scenario planning). The present study proposes that future research should examine more closely the stressor-coping strategy relationship to guide the development of successful coping interventions.

The Value of Social Validation in Single-Case Methods in Sport and Exercise Psychology

Social validation is used to determine satisfaction with an intervention and has been utilized in many single-case studies within sport and exercise psychology research and consultancy. This article reviews current social validation procedures and makes recommendations of how a more thorough consideration of the technique could add greater value to the understanding of single-case protocols within research and applied practice. Recommendations include using semi-structured interviews for data collection, using content analysis to analyze these data, reporting social validation results in a thorough manner, collecting social validation information from significant others, and collecting social validation data as frequently as possible.

Team-referent attributions among sport performers

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a team-referent attribution scale. Conducted over three studies, Study 1 modified items from McAuley, Duncan, and Russells (1992) Causal Dimension Scale II by rewording items to reflect team attributions and adding one item per factor. This led to the development of a 16-item scale (Causal Dimension Scale-T, CDS-T). Study 2 tested competing models of attribution theory among a sample of 433 team sport players. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated strongest support for a four-factor model (robust comparative fit index = .961; root mean squared error of approximation = .054). Study 3 tested the predictive validity of the scale among a sample of 201 team players. Results indicated that winners reported more internal and stable attributions than losers. Further, performances perceived as successful were associated with stable attributions. The results of the study, therefore, suggest that the CDS-T provides a valid measure of team-referent attributions in sport.