Iain D. Ogden

Concentration and prevalence of Escherichia coli O157 in cattle feces at slaughter.

ABSTRACT The concentration and prevalence of Escherichia coli O157 in cattle feces at the time of slaughter was studied over a 9-week period from May to July 2002. Fecal samples (n = 589) were collected from the rectums of slaughtered cattle, and the animal-level prevalence rate was estimated to be 7.5% (95% confidence interval [CI], 5.4 to 9.6%) while the group prevalence was 40.4% (95% CI, 27.7 to 53.2%). Of the 44 infected animals detected, 9% were high shedders that contained E. coli O157 at concentrations of >104 CFU g−1. These 9% represented >96% of the total E. coli O157 produced by all animals tested. All isolates possessed the vt2 gene, 39 had the eaeA gene, and a further five had the vt1 gene also. The presence of high-shedding animals at the abattoir increases the potential risk of meat contamination during the slaughtering process and stresses the need for correctly implemented hazard analysis and critical control point procedures.

Campylobacter genotyping to determine the source of human infection.

BACKGROUND Campylobacter species cause a high proportion of bacterial gastroenteritis cases and are a significant burden on health care systems and economies worldwide; however, the relative contributions of the various possible sources of infection in humans are unclear. METHODS National-scale genotyping of Campylobacter species was used to quantify the relative importance of various possible sources of human infection. Multilocus sequence types were determined for 5674 isolates obtained from cases of human campylobacteriosis in Scotland from July 2005 through September 2006 and from 999 Campylobacter species isolates from 3417 contemporaneous samples from potential human infection sources. These data were supplemented with 2420 sequence types from other studies, representing isolates from a variety of sources. The clinical isolates were attributed to possible sources on the basis of their sequence types with use of 2 population genetic models, STRUCTURE and an asymmetric island model. RESULTS The STRUCTURE and the asymmetric island models attributed most clinical isolates to chicken meat (58% and 78% of Campylobacter jejuni and 40% and 56% of Campylobacter coli isolates, respectively), identifying it as the principal source of Campylobacter infection in humans. Both models attributed the majority of the remaining isolates to ruminant sources, with relatively few isolates attributed to wild bird, environment, swine, and turkey sources. CONCLUSIONS National-scale genotyping was a practical and efficient methodology for the quantification of the contributions of different sources to human Campylobacter infection. Combined with the knowledge that retail chicken is routinely contaminated with Campylobacter, these results are consistent with the view that the largest reductions in human campylobacteriosis in industrialized countries will come from interventions that focus on the poultry industry.

The fate of Escherichia coli and E. coli O157 in cattle slurry after application to land.

The fate of both faecal Escherichia coli and E. coli O157 in slurry following application to arable and grass plots on a clay loam soil was studied. Slurry (5% dry matter) containing 53 × 104 ml−1 E. coli and 30 E. coli O157 100 ml−1 was spread in early March. Initially, almost all E. coli were retained in the upper layers of the soil. Escherichia coli numbers steadily declined to less than 1% of those applied by day 29, and E. coli O157 were only detected in the soil and on the grass for the first week after application. There was some transport of bacteria to deeper layers of the soil, but this was approximately 2% of the total; transport to drains over the same period was mainly associated with rainfall events and amounted to approximately 7% of applied E. coli. However, there were indications that periods of heavy rainfall could cause significant losses of E. coli by both leaching and run‐off. Experimental studies showed that E. coli O157 on grass, which was subsequently ensiled in conditions allowing aerobic spoilage, could multiply to numbers exceeding 106 g−1 in the silage.

The fate of Escherichia coli O157 in soil and its potential to contaminate drinking water.

The survival and transport of Escherichia coli and E. coli O157 after cattle slurry application were studied on drained plots in both grassland and arable stubble at three sites in Scotland. Leaching losses were between 0.2% and 10% of total E. coli and were dependent on rainfall. Recovery of E. coli in grass and soil declined with approximately first order kinetics. Residual numbers, in excess of background declined more slowly. The pattern was similar for both grass and arable plots. Laboratory incubations of soil cores, with applied slurry containing E. coli and E. coli O157 were performed in soils with different moisture contents at two temperatures for clay loam and sandy loam soils. Both E. coli populations were measured over a 4-week period. Using a dual population approach, the die off of the susceptible pool was linear with a half-life of 3-4 days, and was faster at the higher temperature and lowest moisture content. The resistant pool was not strongly affected by temperature or moisture and had a half-life for die off of between 18 and 24 days. After a 4-week period, < 100 cfu g/soil of E. coli and E. coli O157 remained. The die off rate of E. coli O157 was the same or slightly faster than that of the commensal E. coli population, indicating that the field behaviour of E. coli O157 can be studied by monitoring the total population of E. coli applied with slurry. The risk of significant pollution of water by E. coli is highest immediately after application of slurry, and the first increments of drainflow carry significant concentrations. Thereafter, the risk of pollution is very low. If weather conditions are dry after application on well-drained sandy soils, it is unlikely that any significant losses of organisms to drains will occur. Such data can be used to control and minimise the risk of E. coli O157 contaminating drinking water.

Campylobacter genotypes from food animals, environmental sources and clinical disease in Scotland 2005/6

A nationwide multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) survey was implemented to analyze patterns of host association among Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli isolates from clinical disease in Scotland (July 2005-September 2006), food animals (chickens, cattle, sheep, pigs and turkey), non-food animals (wild birds) and the environment. Sequence types (STs) were determined for 5247 clinical isolates and 999 from potential disease sources (augmented with 2420 published STs). Certain STs were over represented among particular sample sets/host groups. These host-associated STs were identified for all sample groups in both Campylobacter species and host associated clonal complexes (groups of related STs) were characterized for C. jejuni. Some genealogical lineages were present in both human disease and food animal samples. This provided evidence for the relative importance of different infection routes/food animal sources in human disease. These results show robust associations of particular genotypes with potential infection sources supporting the contention that contaminated poultry is a major source of human disease.

Long-term survival of Escherichia coli O157 on pasture following an outbreak associated with sheep at a scout camp

Aims: To monitor the decay of E. coli O157 in soil (loamy sand) on a scout campsite following an outbreak in humans.

Attribution of Campylobacter Infections in Northeast Scotland to Specific Sources by Use of Multilocus Sequence Typing

We show that a higher incidence of campylobacteriosis is found in young children (age, <5 years) living in rural, compared with urban, areas. Association of this difference with particular animal sources was evaluated using multilocus sequence typing. This evaluation was achieved by comparing Campylobacter isolates originating from these children, retail poultry, and a range of animal sources by use of source attribution and phylogenetic analysis methods. The results indicate that chicken is a major source of infection in young urban children, although not in their rural counterparts, for which ruminant and other avian sources are more important.

Hierarchical dose response of E. coli O157:H7 from human outbreaks incorporating heterogeneity in exposure

The infectivity of pathogenic microorganisms is a key factor in the transmission of an infectious disease in a susceptible population. Microbial infectivity is generally estimated from dose-response studies in human volunteers. This can only be done with mildly pathogenic organisms. Here a hierarchical Beta-Poisson dose-response model is developed utilizing data from human outbreaks. On the lowest level each outbreak is modelled separately and these are then combined at a second level to produce a group dose-response relation. The distribution of foodborne pathogens often shows strong heterogeneity and this is incorporated by introducing an additional parameter to the dose-response model, accounting for the degree of overdispersion relative to Poisson distribution. It was found that heterogeneity considerably influences the shape of the dose-response relationship and increases uncertainty in predicted risk. This uncertainty is greater than previously reported surrogate and outbreak models using a single level of analysis. Monte Carlo parameter samples (alpha, beta of the Beta-Poisson model) can be readily incorporated in risk assessment models built using tools such as S-plus and @ Risk.

Has Retail Chicken Played a Role in the Decline of Human Campylobacteriosis

ABSTRACT Between 2001 and 2006, the incidence of human Campylobacter infections decreased by 10 and 27% in Scotland and the Grampian region of Scotland, respectively. Contemporaneous collection and analyses of human and retail-chicken isolates from Grampian were carried out over a 10-week period in 2001 and again in 2006 in order to determine whether the fall in the incidence of human infections was related to the retail-chicken exposure route. Rates of carriage of Campylobacter on chicken carcasses from retail outlets in Grampian in 2001 and 2006 were estimated. Chicken-derived Campylobacter isolates from 2001 (n = 84) and 2006 (n = 105) and human-derived isolates from patients with clinical cases of infection in 2001 (n = 172) and 2006 (n = 119) were typed by multilocus sequence typing. We found no evidence for statistically significant changes in prevalence and counts per carcass. We found by rarefaction that although the degree of diversity in humans tended to be higher than that in chickens, these differences were not significant. The genetic distance between chicken and human isolates from 2001 according to sequence type, clonal complex (CC), or allele composition was not significant, whereas the distances between 2006 isolates at the CC and allele levels were significant. This difference was attributable to a lower proportion of CC-21s being found in retail-chicken isolates from 2006 than in chicken isolates from 2001. We conclude that human exposure to Campylobacter via retail chicken is important and that changes in the population structure of campylobacters in this reservoir need to be taken into account in investigating human infection.

Progressive genome-wide introgression in agricultural Campylobacter coli

Hybridization between distantly related organisms can facilitate rapid adaptation to novel environments, but is potentially constrained by epistatic fitness interactions among cell components. The zoonotic pathogens Campylobacter coli and C. jejuni differ from each other by around 15% at the nucleotide level, corresponding to an average of nearly 40 amino acids per protein‐coding gene. Using whole genome sequencing, we show that a single C. coli lineage, which has successfully colonized an agricultural niche, has been progressively accumulating C. jejuni DNA. Members of this lineage belong to two groups, the ST‐828 and ST‐1150 clonal complexes. The ST‐1150 complex is less frequently isolated and has undergone a substantially greater amount of introgression leading to replacement of up to 23% of the C. coli core genome as well as import of novel DNA. By contrast, the more commonly isolated ST‐828 complex bacteria have 10–11% introgressed DNA, and C. jejuni and nonagricultural C. coli lineages each have <2%. Thus, the C. coli that colonize agriculture, and consequently cause most human disease, have hybrid origin, but this cross‐species exchange has so far not had a substantial impact on the gene pools of either C. jejuni or nonagricultural C. coli. These findings also indicate remarkable interchangeability of basic cellular machinery after a prolonged period of independent evolution.