Ingrid C. de Jong

Parameters for quantification of hunger in broiler breeders

The commercial restricted feeding programme of broiler breeders has a major negative effect on welfare, as the birds are continuously hungry. Objective parameters of hunger are needed to evaluate new management or feeding systems that may alleviate hunger and thus improve broiler breeder welfare. The aim of this experiment was to develop such parameters. Female broiler breeders (Hybro G), n=10 per treatment, were subjected to different levels of feed restriction and we assumed that we thus induced different levels of hunger. Treatment groups were fed ad libitum and at 90%, 70%, 50%, 35% and 25% of ad libitum. In addition, female broiler breeders that were less intensively selected on growth and food conversion (JA57, n=10 per treatment) were fed ad libitum and at 70% of ad libitum. At 6-7 weeks of age, home pen behaviour, behaviour in the open field and baseline plasma corticosterone, glucose and nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) concentrations were determined. Thereafter, birds were subjected to the feed intake motivation (FIM) test that measures compensatory feed intake. Linear relationships between the level of restriction and the compensatory feed intake on the first days of the FIM test and the glucose/NEFA ratio were found which indicate that these parameters can be used to quantify the level of hunger. Curvilinear relationships between sitting and standing in the home pen, walking in the open field and level of restriction were found. A third-grade hyperbolic relationship between the level of restriction and the baseline plasma corticosterone concentration was found. Thus, these parameters do not seem to represent a straightforward relation with the level of hunger. Intensive selection on growth and food conversion seems to have affected the behaviour but not the physiological responses to feed restriction, because the JA57 birds responded behaviourally, but not physiologically, different to feed restriction as compared with the Hybro birds.

Determination of the circadian rhythm in plasma corticosterone and catecholamine concentrations in growing broiler breeders using intravenous cannulation.

This paper describes a fast and simple technique for cannulation of the vena cutanea ulnaris (wing vein) in ad libitum fed growing broiler breeders of 5 weeks of age. Twenty-four hours after cannulation, blood was sampled every 4 h during 24 h. The circadian rhythm in plasma corticosterone and catecholamine concentrations was determined for the first time in growing broiler breeders. During the light period, baseline plasma corticosterone concentrations were higher than during the dark period, and reached the circadian peak at 11:00 h (lights on from 07:00 to 15:00 h). Plasma noradrenaline concentrations were higher during the light period than during the dark period, but there was no pronounced circadian rhythm in plasma adrenaline concentrations. Plasma corticosterone and catecholamine concentrations fell within the same range as previously reported in laying hens.

A 'meta-analysis' of effects of post-hatch food and water deprivation on development, performance and welfare of chickens

A ‘meta-analysis’ was performed to determine effects of post-hatch food and water deprivation (PHFWD) on chicken development, performance and welfare (including health). Two types of meta-analysis were performed on peer-reviewed scientific publications: a quantitative ‘meta-analysis’ (MA) and a qualitative analysis (QA). Previously reported effects of PHFWD were quantified in the MA, for variables related to performance, mortality and relative yolk sac weight. The QA counted the number of studies reporting (non-)significant effects when five or more records were available in the data set (i.e. relative heart, liver and pancreas weight; plasma T3, T4 and glucose concentrations; relative duodenum, jejunum and ileum weight; duodenum, jejunum and ileum length; and villus height and crypt depth in duodenum, jejunum and ileum). MA results indicated that 24 hours of PHFWD (i.e. ≥12–36 hours) or more resulted in significantly lower body weights compared to early-fed chickens up to six weeks of age. Body weights and food intake were more reduced as durations of PHFWD (24, 48, 72, ≥84 hours) increased. Feed conversion rate increased in chickens up to 21 and 42 days of age after ≥84 hours PHFWD in comparison with chickens fed earlier. Total mortality at day 42 was higher in chickens after 48 hours PHFWD compared to early fed chickens or chickens after 24 hours PHFWD. First week mortality was higher in chickens after ≥84 hours PHFWD than in early fed chickens. The MA for relative yolk sac weight was inconclusive for PHFWD. The QA for plasma T3, T4 and glucose concentrations indicated mainly short-term decreases in T3 and glucose in PHFWD chickens compared to early fed chickens, and no effects of PHFWD on T4 concentrations. Relative weights of liver, pancreas and heart were lower after PHFWD, but only in the first week of life. A retarded development of gut segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) was found in the first week of life, measured as shorter, lower relative weight, and lower villus height and crypt depth. It is concluded that 48 hours (≥36–60 hours) PHFWD leads to lower body weights and higher total mortality in chickens up to six weeks of age, the latter suggesting compromised chicken welfare, but effects of PHFWD on organ development and physiological status appear to be mainly short-term.

The Use of Feeding Behaviour in the Assessment of Animal Welfare

Feeding behaviour is an important aspect of animal production, as it constitutes the link between the feed provided and that which is consumed. Measures of feeding behaviour can be used as a tool with which to gauge how an animal perceives the diet offered, as well as its motivation to feed, i.e. its level of hunger. The feed intake of an animal may also depend on the presentation of the food, the previous experience of the animal with a given food, and to what extent other competing motivations affect the behaviour of the animal. In this chapter, examples from ruminants, pigs, and poultry are provided on how measures of feeding behaviour can be used to elucidate the constraints on feeding imposed by the nutritional, physical, and social environment of our production animals. For ruminants, the relationship between meal patterns and rumen fermentation is described, together with the effects of feed delivery and feeding frequency on the feeding behaviour, in particular the sorting of feed components. Further examples are provided on how competition at the feed trough results in higher feeding rates and can lead to uneven distribution of the feed between animals in a group, dependent on space availability, trough design, and partitioning. We describe how the provision of fibre may alleviate hunger and aggression in parent stock, such as gestating sows and broiler breeders that are restrictively fed. Examples are provided of how automatic feeders can be used to detect changes in the feeding patterns of individual animals, which in turn can be used in the detection of health problems. It is described how grazing ruminants show behavioural adaptability not only to changes in sward composition and height but also to hot and cold environments. Other examples include studies of feeding behaviour that have explored ways to reduce the stress experienced by piglets in connection with weaning, and how feather pecking in laying hens may be prevented by provision of roughage. Overall, the understanding of species-specific feeding behaviour and nutritional requirements is important for the assessment of animal welfare. It may help solve many feeding problems and allow animals to maximize the potential of the nutritional value of the feed provided to them.