Irena Martínková

An Introduction To The Phenomenological Study Of Sport

In the literature related to the study of sport, the idea of phenomenology appears with various meanings. The aim of this paper is to sketch the nature, methods and central concepts of phenomenology, and thereby to distinguish philosophical phenomenology from its empirical applications. We shall begin by providing an overview of what we think phenomenology is and is not, by introducing the following points: we distinguish phenomenology from phenomenalism; the ontological from the ontic; transcendental subjectivity from subjectivity; phenomenology from phenomenography; and phenomenology from other kinds of empirical qualitative methodology. Next, we examine the two most important British studies to include overviews of phenomenological work in relation to sociology of sport. We then take a critical view of the work of one research paper that gives a particularly clear description of the method of ‘empirical phenomenology’. Throughout, we insist on the simple basics: that phenomenology is not simply the study of empirical phenomena, is not a form of subjectivism, is not about someones personal experience or personal perspective, and that it is not to be confused with ‘qualitative research methods’. We further insist that, if a researcher wishes to use the name ‘phenomenology’ for his or her research, he or she should explain just what it is (about the method or the concepts, or the outcomes) that informs or results from the research programme, in order to justify the name.

Anthropos as Kinanthropos: Heidegger and PatoČka on Human Movement

This paper explores the topic of movement in relation to the human being (anthropos). This topic will be presented from the point of view of phenomenology and related to the area of sport. Firstly, I shall briefly present a description of the human being as static, within which mechanistic, physical movement is ascribed to the body. Secondly, I shall present a different conception of the human being – the human being as movement – using a phenomenological approach to the human being based on the early work of Martin Heidegger, and on the philosophy of Jan Patočka, highlighting some of their ideas most closely related to the existence of the human being and the exploration of the topic of human movement. I shall refer to this concept of the human being with a word that I have coined for the purpose, uniting the human being (anthropos) and movement (kinesis) – kinanthropos. Finally, from this phenomenological account of movement, I shall suggest some indicators for the enrichment of our thinking about sport.

Eichberg’s ‘Phenomenology’ of Sport: A Phenomenal Confusion

This paper defends philosophical phenomenology against a hostile review in the previous issue of this journal. It tries to explain what philosophical phenomenology is, and the possibilities for its empirical application; whilst also showing that Eichberg’s method is idiosyncratic, problematic and not interested in philosophical phenomenology at all. It presents the phenomenological concept of phenomenon, which is neither concrete nor abstract, and contrasts it to Eichberg’s understanding of empirical concrete phenomena. Finally, the paper scrutinises Eichberg’s empirical method, which has deep problems of its own, and in any case, finds unsuitable its characterisation as ‘phenomenology’

Martial Categories: Clarification and Classification

The gradual appearance and relative stabilisation of the names of different kinds of martial activities in different cultures and contexts has led to confusion and to an unhelpful and unjustifiable elision of meanings, which merges different modes of combat and other martial activities. To gain a clearer perspective on this area, we must enquire into the criteria according to which the various kinds of martial activities are (or should be) classified. Our assessment of the literature suggests that there is no satisfactory and well-justified overall cross-cultural account of the classification of martial activities. This paper provides a revisionary classification and offers an explanation and a justification of the five main categories identified: close combat, warrior arts, martial paths, martial arts and martial sports; as well as some minor ones, such as martial training, martial therapy, martial display, martial games and martial dance.

On Biting in Sport—The Case of Luis Suárez

So the Uruguayan footballer Luis Suárez has confessed, apologised and given assurances as to future good behaviour, after his 2014 World Cup assault on the Italian defender Chiellini. There were three immediate excuses and mitigations offered, which we dismiss: that it was inconsequential; that it was no different from many other ‘assaults’; and that it was not particularly serious. Our central question has a different focus: what makes biting in sport such a bad thing, especially since it does not seem always to threaten as much harm to opponents as some other practices? We examine the place of biting in sports rules, especially in combat and contact sports, and the role of consent and criminal liability, before considering when and why biting is seen as unacceptable. We consider arguments from harm (direct and indirect), skin penetration (bodily integrity and transgression), ‘dirty fighting’ and animalism. Finally, we consider the topical case of Luis Suárez, distinguishing reactive from proactive biting, and reactive from instrumental behaviour. We also consider arguments that offer psychological and cultural mitigation, and we assess the justice of FIFA’s punishment. We suggest that biting is different from other types of assault; was possibly intended to be consequential; is the kind of assault to the possibility of which participants do not consent, so that it is actionable in criminal law; and that, whilst psychological and cultural ‘explanations’ may shed some light on background, motivations and attitudes, they do not affect the above points, and provide no excuse or mitigation. Our further explanations for the unacceptability of biting in sport raise moral and aesthetic issues, since it threatens harm, is ‘dirty’, transgressive and animalistic. These indicate ways in which such practices might raise issues of vulgarity and disgust; and might compromise the potential of sport for moral education. Finally, we argue that Suárez’ punishment was neither unfair nor harsh, that no issues were raised in employment law, and that FIFA bore no responsibility for the treatment and rehabilitation of the player. Indeed, the onus is on Suárez to demonstrate that he can prove to be an acceptable opponent.

Fair or Temple: Two Possibilities for Olympic Sport

This paper is based on the work of Pierre de Coubertin and his view of Olympism. It deals with Coubertins distinction between two kinds of sport: Olympic sport and world championship sport. I shall examine these two possibilities with respect both to education through sport and to how one lives ones life, and I shall show the necessity of choosing between them, with reference to Coubertins closing remarks in his speech at the 1925 Olympic Congress in Prague: ‘Fair or temple – sportsmen must make their choice; they cannot expect to frequent both one and the other … let them choose!’ (Coubertin 2000f, 559). I shall address the topic of the choice between these two kinds of sport through the two metaphors in the above quotation: ‘fair’, in the sense of a market, or in ancient Greek agora; and ‘temple’. Since this is also a choice of the way one lives ones life, the ideas will be worked out from within the philosophy of existence, particularly from the work of Jan Patočka, who develops the idea of different ‘movements of human existence’ in connection with different overall life directions that one might follow. The notion of ‘fair’ (or agora) is characterised by a human beings following of the prevailing patterns, norms and aims prescribed by society, without much reflection upon his or her individual aims and attitudes. It is described in Heideggerian terms as inauthenticity and in Patočkas idea of the second life movement, which is characterised by work, struggle, competition, comparisons, endless striving and self-assertion. Within sport, this is represented by wanting to win at all costs, lack of respect, self-promotion and striving for rewards. The notion of ‘temple’ is contrasted with the above mentioned character of the fair and is related to a certain clarity about ones existence and striving, ones doing and thinking, as described in Patočkas third movement of existence. Within the context of sport this is instantiated as a kind of self-development based on self-understanding and critical reflection, and it is illustrated by Olympism and Olympic sport.

Heideggerian hermeneutics and its application to sport

Abstarct Whilst hermeneutics had been traditionally associated with the interpretation of texts, Martin Heidegger gave it a new meaning, associating it with the interpretation of the existence (the ‘being’) of Dasein. This paper will explain the Heideggerian understanding of hermeneutics, based on the early work of Heidegger (especially Being and Time and other related works from this period) which focuses on the analysis of the being of Dasein. His main contribution was a shift of focus from the interpretation of an unknown object (a text) to the interpretation of the human being (Dasein), which Heidegger sees as primary, since it is on the basis of Dasein’s understanding that other things and beings are interpreted. Firstly, the paper discusses hermeneutics in relation to human being (Dasein), with a brief introduction to the main characteristics of Dasein (including the ‘existentialia’), showing the place of hermeneutics within Dasein’s existence, together with Heidegger’s re-interpretation of the hermeneutic circle. Secondly, this understanding is applied to sport, focusing on the experience of athletes and on the possibilities for interpretations towards authentic existence, including its ethical aspect.

Body Ecology: Avoiding body–mind dualism

When we talk about Body Ecology, we cannot avoid addressing the question of an understanding of the human body. This question leads to considerations of the wholeness of the human being, often conceived as the ‘unity of the body and the mind,’ which presupposes dualistic thinking. Since this is a problematic and inadequate concept of the human being, new ‘holistic’ concepts of the human being have been developed, such as ‘psychophysical unity’ and ‘bio-psycho-social unity.’ This paper argues that, despite the arrival of these new ‘holistic’ theories, we have not replaced dualism. Rather, it remains hidden in our thinking and practice, though in a more sophisticated way than before. Since these theories are a way of trying to express the understanding of the human as a whole, the main aim of this paper is to highlight the problem of dualism and atomism with respect to these theories by focusing on an understanding of the concepts of ‘part’ and ‘whole’ and their relationship. Finally, a way toward an understanding of the wholeness of the human being, based on a phenomenological approach to the human being, will be presented and discussed.

Safe Danger – On the Experience of Challenge, Adventure and Risk in Education

Abstract This article reconsiders the presence and value of danger in outdoor and adventurous activities and sports in safety-conscious societies, especially in relation to the education of children and youth. Based on an original analysis of the relation between the concepts of ‘risk’ and ‘danger’, we offer an account of the relation between challenge, adventure, risk and danger, and emphasise the importance of teaching risk recognition, risk assessment, risk management and risk avoidance to children and youth, without the necessity of exposing them to jeopardy in dangerous situations. Our conclusion is that ‘Safe Danger’ describes what educators should seek, namely: the educational benefits of the challenges set by risk-taking and the demands of risk-facing, including those in adventurous situations, which are obtainable in the absence of significant danger, and which contribute to risk education. The educational value of adventurous and outdoor pursuits lies elsewhere than in the opportunities that they present for danger-facing, for example in their promotion of self-reliance, confidence, ability to team-work, and especially in their promotion of risk education, as an integral aspect of everyday life planning, as preparation for the day’s adventurous challenges, and as an instrument of task completion.

Pierre de Coubertin's vision of the role of sport in peaceful internationalism

This paper presents the topic of peacemaking in relation to the practice of sport within Olympism. It is based on the thinking of Pierre de Coubertin and his understanding of Olympism. First, it discusses the practice of sport in relation to two kinds of competition – excessive and moderate. Second, it identifies six key themes in the work of de Coubertin that help to promote moderate competition and that enable sport practice to be peace promoting. These are equality, amateurism, the importance of process and discipline, the role of knowledge of self and others and respect for others. An understanding of these themes can help to make the practice of sport more peaceful – and truly Olympic.