Jim Parry

Sport and Olympism: Universals and Multiculturalism

We live in a world of universalizing tendencies, where the economic and political forces of globalization meet the ethical and cultural imperatives generated by our need to coexist in a shrinking and increasingly interconnected global society. Sport is not immune to these tendencies. Rather, in the experience of many millions of people, it is a prominent example of them, graphically illustrating them in the processes of global dissemination and participation, commercialization, sponsorship, athlete migration, equipment production and distribution, media/sport symbiosis, politics/sport relations, and increasing rules clarifi cation together with their progressively universal interpretation and application. Through our participation in, or consumption of, sport, such widespread tendencies and processes are rendered visible and potentially intelligible. Critics have often noted the conservative effect of sports in their “naturalizing” of human capacities and relations (“of course men and women are not equal—look at tennis or athletics”), but I suggest that this effect need not be conservative. It is also possible for radical restatements of capacities and reconceptualizations of human relations to be naturalized through sport. One example is the current reexamination of racism in Europe sparked by the racist chanting of football spectators in the European Champions Cup. European football (especially English football) is now so thoroughly international and interracial that it brings to the foreground the unacceptability of racism in society in a way unthinkable even 20 years ago. So sport presents us with opportunities to encounter political sociology in the demystifying context of the “natural” and the “playful.” To understand what might be the possible effects of this—the cultural manifestations and potential cultural development involved—we need to examine in some detail a contemporary example, and we shall make reference to the largest and probably most well-known sporting manifestation in the modern world: the Olympic Games.

An Introduction To The Phenomenological Study Of Sport

In the literature related to the study of sport, the idea of phenomenology appears with various meanings. The aim of this paper is to sketch the nature, methods and central concepts of phenomenology, and thereby to distinguish philosophical phenomenology from its empirical applications. We shall begin by providing an overview of what we think phenomenology is and is not, by introducing the following points: we distinguish phenomenology from phenomenalism; the ontological from the ontic; transcendental subjectivity from subjectivity; phenomenology from phenomenography; and phenomenology from other kinds of empirical qualitative methodology. Next, we examine the two most important British studies to include overviews of phenomenological work in relation to sociology of sport. We then take a critical view of the work of one research paper that gives a particularly clear description of the method of ‘empirical phenomenology’. Throughout, we insist on the simple basics: that phenomenology is not simply the study of empirical phenomena, is not a form of subjectivism, is not about someones personal experience or personal perspective, and that it is not to be confused with ‘qualitative research methods’. We further insist that, if a researcher wishes to use the name ‘phenomenology’ for his or her research, he or she should explain just what it is (about the method or the concepts, or the outcomes) that informs or results from the research programme, in order to justify the name.

Physical education as Olympic education.

Introduction In a recent paper (Parry, 1998, p. 64), I argued that the justification of PE activities lies in their capacity to facilitate the development of certain human excellences of a valued kind. Of course, the problem now lies in specifying those ‘human excellences of a valued kind’, and (for anyone) this task leads us into the area of philosophical anthropology. I suggested that the way forward for Physical Education lies in the philosophical anthropology (and the ethical ideals) of Olympism, which provide a specification of a variety of human values and excellences which: •have been attractive to human groups over an impressive span of time and space •have contributed massively to our historically developed conceptions of ourselves •have helped to develop a range of artistic and cultural conceptions that have defined Western culture. •have produced a range of physical activities that have been found universally satisfying and challenging. Although physical activities are widely considered to be pleasurable, their likelihood of gaining wide acceptance lies rather in their intrinsic value, which transcends the simply hedonic or relative good. Their ability to furnish us with pleasurable experiences depends upon our prior recognition in them of opportunities for the development and expression of valued human excellences. They are widely considered to be such opportunities for the expression of valued human excellences because, even when as local instantiations, their object is to challenge our common human propensities and abilities. I claimed that Olympic ideals may be seen not merely as inert ‘ideals’, but living ideas which have the power to remake our notions of sport in education, seeing sport not as mere physical activity but as the cultural and developmental activity of an aspiring, achieving, well-balanced, educated and ethical individual. This paper seeks to make good that claim by trying to develop a case for Physical Education as Olympic Education. I begin by setting out various accounts and conceptions of the Olympic Idea; then I suggest a unifying and organising account of the philosophical anthropology of Olympism; and this is followed by the practical application of that account in two examples of current ethical issues. Finally, I seek to present an account of Physical Education as Olympic Education.

The power of sport in peacemaking and peacekeeping

This paper argues that sport is not about conflict but competition; not about violence but controlled aggression; neither is it amoral and value-free but is itself a moral enterprise. The paper provides an analysis of the internal values and the internal logic of sport, which combine to ‘make peace’ via their isomorphism with political liberalism, especially the liberal idea of the ‘contract to contest’, and its emphasis on equality, respect, mutuality and other ‘human rights’ values. It is not only just sports popularity, but also this peacemaking capacity of sport, which informs its peacekeeping potential.

The Youth Olympic Games – Some Ethical Issues

This paper presents some of the background to the development of the Youth Olympic Games, the principles underlying them, and some of the practical challenges in implementing them. Regarding the sports programme, modifications from the Olympic Games programme are noted, and innovations examined in terms of underlying values, such as immaturity and harm, talent identification and early specialisation, and the exploitation of young athletes. Issues arising from the first edition of the YOG include participation and equality of opportunity, selection of sports and nations for the programme, age and fairness, age falsification and cheating, victory and defeat, participation and excellence, and political discrimination, peace and international understanding. The paper concludes that, although many of the above issues present already-existing challenges for the Olympic movement, albeit in a novel form, there were also some novel issues thrown up by a ‘youth’ edition of the Olympic Games, and many of the ethical and other value questions raised have much wider applications and consequences. It is to be hoped that ethical issues arising out of the YOG will provide a fresh impetus towards discussions as to the nature and promotion of ethical sport.

The Idea of the Record

This paper examines the idea of the sports record and its relation to our ideas of excellence, achievement and progress. It begins by recovering and reviewing the work of Richard Mandell, whose definition of the record emphasizes three central ideas: statistic, athletic and recognition. It then considers the work of Henning Eichberg, Allen Guttmann and Mandell, from the 1970s onwards, on the genesis of the modern sports record, explaining and developing their ideas via a distinction between descriptive and emulative records, and between different kinds of emulative records. This then permits an analysis of contemporary athletic and sports records. The idea of the significant record will also be advanced, offering the four-minute mile as an example, in an attempt to explicate our continuing fascination with such exceptional achievements. It then considers the contribution of recent discussions of sport technologies and the logic of quantifiable progress, and tries to put our obsession with records in perspective as but one way in which we respond to and evaluate sporting performance.

Eichberg’s ‘Phenomenology’ of Sport: A Phenomenal Confusion

This paper defends philosophical phenomenology against a hostile review in the previous issue of this journal. It tries to explain what philosophical phenomenology is, and the possibilities for its empirical application; whilst also showing that Eichberg’s method is idiosyncratic, problematic and not interested in philosophical phenomenology at all. It presents the phenomenological concept of phenomenon, which is neither concrete nor abstract, and contrasts it to Eichberg’s understanding of empirical concrete phenomena. Finally, the paper scrutinises Eichberg’s empirical method, which has deep problems of its own, and in any case, finds unsuitable its characterisation as ‘phenomenology’

Martial Categories: Clarification and Classification

The gradual appearance and relative stabilisation of the names of different kinds of martial activities in different cultures and contexts has led to confusion and to an unhelpful and unjustifiable elision of meanings, which merges different modes of combat and other martial activities. To gain a clearer perspective on this area, we must enquire into the criteria according to which the various kinds of martial activities are (or should be) classified. Our assessment of the literature suggests that there is no satisfactory and well-justified overall cross-cultural account of the classification of martial activities. This paper provides a revisionary classification and offers an explanation and a justification of the five main categories identified: close combat, warrior arts, martial paths, martial arts and martial sports; as well as some minor ones, such as martial training, martial therapy, martial display, martial games and martial dance.

On Biting in Sport—The Case of Luis Suárez

So the Uruguayan footballer Luis Suárez has confessed, apologised and given assurances as to future good behaviour, after his 2014 World Cup assault on the Italian defender Chiellini. There were three immediate excuses and mitigations offered, which we dismiss: that it was inconsequential; that it was no different from many other ‘assaults’; and that it was not particularly serious. Our central question has a different focus: what makes biting in sport such a bad thing, especially since it does not seem always to threaten as much harm to opponents as some other practices? We examine the place of biting in sports rules, especially in combat and contact sports, and the role of consent and criminal liability, before considering when and why biting is seen as unacceptable. We consider arguments from harm (direct and indirect), skin penetration (bodily integrity and transgression), ‘dirty fighting’ and animalism. Finally, we consider the topical case of Luis Suárez, distinguishing reactive from proactive biting, and reactive from instrumental behaviour. We also consider arguments that offer psychological and cultural mitigation, and we assess the justice of FIFA’s punishment. We suggest that biting is different from other types of assault; was possibly intended to be consequential; is the kind of assault to the possibility of which participants do not consent, so that it is actionable in criminal law; and that, whilst psychological and cultural ‘explanations’ may shed some light on background, motivations and attitudes, they do not affect the above points, and provide no excuse or mitigation. Our further explanations for the unacceptability of biting in sport raise moral and aesthetic issues, since it threatens harm, is ‘dirty’, transgressive and animalistic. These indicate ways in which such practices might raise issues of vulgarity and disgust; and might compromise the potential of sport for moral education. Finally, we argue that Suárez’ punishment was neither unfair nor harsh, that no issues were raised in employment law, and that FIFA bore no responsibility for the treatment and rehabilitation of the player. Indeed, the onus is on Suárez to demonstrate that he can prove to be an acceptable opponent.

Integrity and the corruption debate in sport: where is the integrity?

ABSTRACT Research question: The paper is based on the contention that ‘integrity’ is a significantly under-theorised and under-conceptualised value within sports particularly in its use by a range of organisations fighting corruption in sport, which constitute what can be termed the ‘sports integrity industry’. The ‘sports integrity industry’ reveals: different narratives about integrity amongst the different groups; a lack of integration between the different views of integrity in sport; and the danger of imposing a corporate model of (behavioural-based) integrity. Research methods: The approach adopted in the research is two-fold. Initially, a brief examination will be made of the use of the term integrity by a range of bodies within Europe and wider internationally as part of the sports integrity industry. This identifies different level of depth and sophistication of the meanings given to the term. The second part of the paper clears the conceptual ground, examining the different philosophical and psychological views of integrity. Results and findings: This analysis will distinguish moral and behavioural integrity and examine the theoretical basis for the different understandings of integrity that have been developed in literature around business and public sector activities. The paper concludes that as far as effective engagement with corruption, sport needs to look beyond its own experience and be conscious of the wider debate concerning integrity. Implications: There is an urgent need for the development of the concept and practice of integrity and effective governance in sport that recognises the inherent integrity of sport itself; personal integrity; organisational integrity and procedural integrity in sports events.