Israel Finkelstein

Climate, settlement patterns and olive horticulture in the southern Levant during the Early Bronze and Intermediate Bronze Ages (c. 3600–1950 BC)

We report results of palynological investigation of a core of sediments extracted from the bottom of the Sea of Galilee. The core was sampled at high resolution for both palynological analysis (a sample was taken c. every 40 years) and radiocarbon dating. The article focuses on the Early Bronze and Intermediate Bronze Ages, c. 3600–1950 BC. The results enable reconstruction of the vegetation and thus climate in the lakes fluvial and alluvial catchment, which includes large parts of northern Israel and Lebanon and south-western Syria. The study sheds light on topics such as changes in olive cultivation through time and regions, processes of urbanization and collapse and settlement expansion and retraction in the arid zones.

Saul, Benjamin and the Emergence of »Biblical Israel«: An Alternative View

The article discusses Naamans recent proposal in this journal that the land of Benjamin was part of Judah throughout monarchic and earlier times. I agree with Naaman that in late monarchic times the land of Benjamin indeed belonged to Judah. But I contend that in previous centuries the region was dominated by the north Israelite polity. I suggest that this territory changed hands at least once – from north to south – in the second half of the 9th century BCE. Against this background the article also discusses Naamans hypothesis regarding the emergence of »biblical Israel«. Cette étude critique la récente proposition de Naaman, qui voit le pays de Benjamin comme partie intégrante de Juda durant la période monarchique et antérieurement – laccord étant établi pour la période monarchique tardive. LA. propose au contraire de voir, pour les siècles précédents, cette région dominée par un gouvernement de lIsraël du nord. Il estime que ce territoire a changé de main, du moins une fois – passant du nord au sud – durant la seconde moitié du IXème siècle av. J.-Chr. A partir de cet arrière-plan, cette étude critique donc lhypothèse de Naaman quant à lémergence de l »Israël biblique« Dieser Artikel setzt sich mit Naamans jüngstem Vorschlag in dieser Zeitschrift auseinander, dass das Land Benjamin in der Königszeit und davor zu Juda gehört hat. Ich stimme mit Naaman darin überein, dass in der späten Königszeit das Land Benjamin zweifellos zu Juda gehörte. Aber ich vertrete die Ansicht, dass in den vorausgehenden Jahrhunderten diese Region durch das nordisraelitische Gemeinwesen beherrscht worden ist. Ich gehe deshalb davon aus, dass dieses Gebiet den Besitzer wenigstens einmal gewechselt hat: In der zweiten Hälfte des 9. Jh. v. u. Z. von Nord nach Süd. Vor diesem Hintergrund setzt sich der Artikel auch mit Naamans Hypothese betreffs der Entstehung des »biblischen Israel« auseinander.

Geographical and Historical Realities behind the Earliest Layer in the David Story

ABSTRACT The article attempts to identify an early Judahite layer in the David narrative in 1-2 Samuel and dates the reality behind it to the period prior to Judah expansion into the southern Hebron Highlands and the Beer-sheba Valley in the second half of the 9th century BCE. This helps to clarify the territorial and historical situation in the south in the 10th and early 9th centuries BCE. The article delineates the southern extent of the early north Israelite highlands polity, whose hub was in the area of Gibeon-Gibeah, and the territories of the Philistine kingdom of Gath and the desert polity that emerged at that time in the Beer-sheba Valley. It also deals with the role of Sheshonq I in shaping the long-term territorio-political order in southern Canaan.

Mozah, Nephtoah and royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands

The article deals with three related issues. We first revisit the question of identification of biblical Mozah and assert that it cannot be placed at Tel Moza (Qaluniya); rather, it should be located in one of the Iron Age sites further to the north, which are related to the Gibeon plateau. We then suggest identifying Tel Moza (Qaluniya) with biblical Nephtoah. Finally we discuss the long-term phenomenon of royal estates in the Jerusalem highlands.

Comments on the Historical Background of the Jacob Narrative in Genesis

Abstract: The authors deploy archaeological, geographical and exegetical considerations in order to reconstruct the development of the Jacob Cycle in Genesis. The earliest material seems to have originated from the Israelite population in the Gilead in the early phases of the Iron Age; it dealt mainly with the construction of the temple of El at Penuel and with the delineation of the settlement border between Israelites and Arameans in Transjordan. In the 8th century BCE the Jacob tradition was »transported« to the west of the Jordan, to the area of Bethel-Shechem, and put in writing. This was probably done in conjunction with Jeroboam II’s reorganization of the cult of the Northern Kingdom, including the promotion of the worship of Yhwh and his temples. The article then discusses later layers in the Jacob Cycle: the merging of the northern Jacob narrative with the southern Abraham and Isaac narratives, the Priestly work and post-Priestly redactions of the cycle. Résumé: Les auteurs présentent des considérations archéologiques, géographiques et exégétiques en vue de la reconstruction du cycle de Jacob dans le livre de la Genèse. Le matériau originel semble provenir de la population israélite en Galaad, à la première époque du Fer; il concerne principalement la construction du temple d’El à Pénuel et la délimitation des frontières entre Israélites et Araméens en Transjordanie. Au 8ème siècle av. n.è., la tradition de Jacob a été »transportée« à l’ouest du Jourdain, dans la région de Béthel et Sichem, où elle fut mise par écrit. Ce transfest a lieu lors de la réorganisation du culte dans le royaume du Nord sous Jéroboam II, y compris la promotion du culte de YHWH et de ses temples. Sont ensuite évoquées les couches tardives du cycle de Jacob: la combinaison du récit de Jacob avec ceux d’Abraham et d’Isaac dans le royaume du Sud, l’ouvrage sacerdotal et les rédactions post-sacerdotales du cycle. Zusammenfassung: Die Autoren präsentieren archäologische, geographische und exegetische Überlegungen, um die Entstehung des Jakobzyklus in der Genesis zu rekonstruieren. Das früheste Material scheint von der israelitischen Bevölkerung in Gilead aus der frühen Eisenzeit zu stammen, es beschäftigte sich vor allem mit dem Bau des El-Tempels in Pnuel und mit der Beschreibung der Siedlungsgrenze zwischen den Israeliten und Aramäern in Transjordanien. Im 8. Jh. v.u2009Chr. wurde die Jakobtradition in das Gebiet westlich des Jordans »transportiert«, in die Gegend von Bethel und Sichem, und dort schriftlich fixiert. Dies wurde wahrscheinlich im Zusammenhang der Reorganisation des Kultes im Nordreich unter Jerobeam II. veranlasst, einschließlich der Förderung der Jhwh-Verehrung und seines Tempels. Der Artikel diskutiert nachfolgend die späteren Schichten des Jakobzyklus: Die Verschmelzung der Jakoberzählung des Nordreiches mit den Abraham- und Isaakerzählungen des Südreichs, die Priesterschrift und die nachpriesterschriftlichen Redaktionen des Zyklus.

Compositional Phases, Geography and Historical Setting behind Judges 4-5 and the Location of Harosheth-ha-goiim

ABSTRACT In this article I deal with the compositional history, geographical background and possible historical setting of Judges 4-5. I propose that the original heroic, oral material behind these chapters represents two different traditions: One (embedded in Chapter 4) originated in the area of Mount Tabor and the hills to its east and northeast and had the city of Anaharath (the name behind the pun or polemic twist of “Harosheth-ha-goiim”) at its core. The other (part of Chapter 5, 19-22) came from the southwestern Jezreel Valley. These traditions represent memories of turbulent 10th century BCE events—the fall of the last of the late-Canaanite city-states and the take-over of the region by highlanders (Israelites) just before, or in very early days of, the rise of the Northern Kingdom. They were put in writing for the first time by a North Israelite author in the first half of the 8th century. This author had only vague knowledge of the western valley tradition (Chapter 5); hence while composing the early song, he “imported” details from Chapter 4, merged the two tales into one account, and “expanded” both to portray a broad (North) Israelite scene. A Deuteronomistic author of the late 7th century BCE inserted the frames characteristic of the Book of Judges, harmonized Chapter 4 with the Jabin story in Joshua 11, included other “explanatory” notes and entered the divine intervention in Chapter 4. A Deuteronomistic author also introduced the adoration of YHWH segments in Chapter 5.

The swan-song of Proto-Canaanite in the ninth century BCE in light of an alphabetic inscription from Megiddo

The paper presents a sherd with the remnant of an inscription, unearthed at Megiddo in the 2014 excavation season in a level affiliated with either the transition from Stratum VB to Stratum VA-IVB, or with Stratum VA-IVB. This is the earliest alphabetic text from the site. The continuation of Proto-Canaanite into the ninth century is then addressed, and other questions concerning the development of the West Semitic alphabet in the tenth-ninth centuries.

The expansion of Judah in II Chronicles: Territorial legitimation for the Hasmoneans?

Abstract: The article deals with the descriptions of Judah’s territorial expansion in sections of II Chronicles that do not appear in Kings. It suggests that these accounts, which represent a central theme in Chronicles, were written in order to legitimize Hasmonean territorial expansion. More precisely, the article focuses the spotlight on the days of John Hyrcanus, in the late 2nd century BCE. Zusammenfassung: Der Artikel befasst sich mit der Beschreibung von Judas territorialer Expansion in jenen Passagen in II Chronik, die keine Parallele in den Königebüchern haben. Die These lautet, dass diese Erzählungen, die ein zentrales Thema der Chronikbücher repräsentieren, zur Legitimation der territorialen Expansion unter den Hasmonäern verfasst wurden. Genauer: der Artikel konzentriert sich auf die Zeit des Johannes Hyrkanos, also auf das späte 2. Jahrhundert v. Chr. Résumé: L’article traite la question de la description de l’expansion territoriale de Juda dans les passages de 2 Chroniques, passages qui n’ont pas de parallèles dans les livres des Rois. La thèse est que ces narrations, qui représentent un thème central dans les Chroniques, ont été rédigées pour légitimer l’expansion territoriale sous les Hasmonéens. Plus précisément, l’article s’intéresse à l’époque de Jean Hyrcan, c’est-à-dire à la fin du 2ème siècle av. J.-C.