Ivan Gee

Ambient air levels of volatile organic compounds in Latin American and Asian cities

Levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been measured during short monitoring campaigns in four cities in Latin America; Caracas (Venezuela), Quito (Ecuador), Santiago (Chile), Sao Paulo (Brazil), and two cities in Asia; Bangkok (Thailand) and Manila (Philippines). The aim of the study was to identify typical levels of VOCs in these cities where monitoring of this unregulated but important group of pollutants has rarely been conducted. Levels monitored were relatively high in comparison to typical European and US levels. Mean benzene levels ranged from 5–18μg/m3 and toluene from 15–186μg/m3. VOC levels in the Latin American cities were similar and considerably lower than those measured in the two Asian cities. Levels in Quito were the lowest of all the cities studied and this may reflect its high altitude which allows the use of fuels with a low aromatic content. The relative abundances of the different VOCs monitored and the ratios between different VOCs are largely consistent with vehicles being the predominant source of VOCs in these cities. The levels of VOCs measured during this study were generally higher than proposed UK standards and as such represent a direct health risk to the inhabitants of the cities. High levels of VOCs will also affect the incidence and severity of photochemical episodes with further consequences for human health and the environment.

Vehicle emissions in relation to fuel composition

In recent years there has been growing concern over the impact of non-regulated pollutants produced by vehicles and in particular the role of specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs). As yet there is limited information on the effect of changing fuel compositions on VOC emissions from gasoline fuelled vehicles. The basis of this study was, therefore, to investigate the relationship between emissions and fuel quality and consider its implications with respect to both indoor and outdoor air quality. Dynamometer studies were conducted using a standard test cycle and the total exhaust emissions over the complete cycle were sampled for subsequent analysis. Tests were performed on a variety of gasolines with differing amounts of olefin and aromatic compounds and the concentrations of specific VOCs were measured together with other pollutants of concern. Results of these studies were considered in relation to the changes in VOC emissions that could be released into street air as a result of using the fuels tested. In addition, in highly urbanised countries where dwellings and work places are in close proximity to vehicle traffic, changes in outdoor air quality will also be reflected in indoor air.

Commuter exposure to respirable particles inside buses and by bicycle.

The exposure of bus commuters and a cyclist to respirable particles in the city of Manchester has been evaluated, using personal sampling pumps installed in the cabs of the vehicles and carried by the cyclist. These have provided an estimate of the average exposure of commuters using bus services and cycling in a congested European city.

The effects of smoking status and ventilation on environmental tobacco smoke concentrations in public areas of UK pubs and bars

Abstract UK public houses generally allow smoking to occur and consequently customer ETS exposure can take place. To address this, in 1999 the UK Government and the hospitality industry initiated the Public Places Charter (PPC) to increase non-smoking facilities and provide better ventilation in public houses. A study involving 60 UK pubs, located in Greater Manchester, was conducted to investigate the effects of smoking area status and ventilation on ETS concentrations. ETS markers RSP, UVPM, FPM, SolPM and nicotine were sampled and analysed using established methodologies. ETS marker concentrations were significantly higher (P Levels of particulate phase ETS markers were also found to be higher in the smoking sections of pubs that allowed smoking throughout compared to the smoking sections of pubs with other areas where smoking was prohibited. The presence of a non-smoking section has the effect of reducing concentrations even in the smoking areas. This may be caused by migration of smoke into the non-smoking section thereby diluting the smoking area or by smokers tending to avoid pubs with non-smoking areas thus reducing source strengths in the smoking areas of these pubs. Nicotine concentrations were not found to be significantly different in smoking areas of the two types of establishment indicating that nicotine is not as mobile in these environments and tends to remain in the smoking areas. This result, together with the much higher reductions in nicotine concentrations between smoking and non-smoking areas compared to other markers, suggests that nicotine is not the most suitable marker to use in these environments as an indicator of the effectiveness of tobacco control policies. The use of ventilation systems (sophisticated HVAC systems and extractor fans in either the on or off mode) did not have a significant effect (P > 0.05) on ETS marker concentrations in either the smoking or non-smoking areas. The PPC aims to reduce non-smoking customers’ exposure through segregation and ventilation and provide customer choice though appropriate signs. This study indicates that although ETS levels are lower in non-smoking sections and signs will assist customers in reducing their exposure, some exposure will still occur because ETS was detected in non-smoking areas. Existing ventilation provision was not effective in reducing exposure and signs advertising ventilated premises may be misleading to customers. Improvements in the design and management of ventilation systems in pubs and bars are required to reduce customer exposure to ETS, if the aims of the PPC are to be met.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke

UK workplace regulations leave hospitality trade workforce unprotected Bans on smoking in public places and workplaces, including bars and restaurants, have recently been introduced in California and New York City and have been announced in Ireland. In addition, the UK Chief Medical Officer1 and the EU Health Commissioner have recently called for a ban on smoking in public places. Despite clear evidence that environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) adversely affects health and is an important occupational health hazard, the current UK policy response and regulatory framework for occupational ETS exposure remains inadequate with no discernable scientific rationale. ETS is a complex mixture of over 3800 gaseous and particulate components, including more than 50 known or suspected human carcinogens and 100 toxic chemicals. Exposure to ETS through passive smoking has been associated with many diseases including lung cancer, and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.2,3 The impact on cardiovascular disease is particularly important from an occupational and public health perspective. Steenland et al recently estimated that in the USA there are 2000–3000 deaths annually among non-smokers from cardiovascular related disease due to occupational exposure to ETS.4 Occupational exposure to ETS is widespread, with an estimated 7.5 million workers in the EU and 1.3 million workers in the UK exposed to ETS for at least 75% of their working time.5 Many are employed in the hospitality industry on a casual basis in bars, pubs, restaurants, hotels, and nightclubs. Studies have shown high ETS marker concentrations levels in a range of hospitality settings.6,7 “Control measures should be implemented to reduce occupational exposure” The UK has no specific regulatory framework for occupational ETS exposure. The Health …

The Contribution of Environmental Tobacco Smoke to Indoor Pollution in Pubs and Bars

Smoking is currently allowed in most UK pubs and bars and smoking policies are self regulated by the hospitality industry through the Public Places Charter, which encourages the provision of non-smoking areas and improved ventilation. In this study monitoring of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has been conducted in 60 pubs and bars in the Greater Manchester area to determine the effectiveness of different smoking policies. The ETS markers RSP (as PM2.5), UVPM, FPM, SolPM and nicotine were sampled at several locations in each establishment, using portable monitoring cases and analysed using established methods. ETS concentrations were significantly lower in non-smoking areas in comparison to smoking areas, with reductions of between 27-69%. Bar areas had similar levels to smoking areas. The proportion of particles (RSP) that could be attributed to ETS was considerable even in non-smoking areas (43-55%) indicating that smoking was the major source of particles in these environments. The use of mechanical and/or air cleaning systems resulted in lower average concentrations of ETS markers in comparison to use of extractor fans or natural ventilation, but these differences were not statistically significant.

Indoor Air Quality, Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Asthma: A Case Control Study of Asthma in a Community Population

In recent decades the prevalence of asthma has been increasing in Western countries. Altered environment and lifestyle conditions have been implicated but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The Indoor Pollutants, Endotoxin, Allergens, Damp and Asthma (IPEADAM) study is a cross-sectional, case control study designed to analyse the home environments of 200 children in Manchester. In this paper the home concentrations and relationships to asthma development have been examined for a variety of indoor agents including environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and damp, which have been reported as potential factors in the development or the exacerbation of asthma. Levels of respirable particles and tobacco specific particles were found to be significantly higher in the homes with smokers present, but there were no differences in the levels of NO2, formaldehyde or VOCs. However, there were no significant differences in the levels of tobacco related pollutants in the homes of children with and without asthma. Similarly there were no statistically significant differences in the levels of NO2, formaldehyde, VOCs, temperature or relative humidity between the homes of children with and without asthma. This study has demonstrated that few differences exist between the home environments of English children, between 4-16 years of age, with asthma and those without the disease. The parameters examined in this study are unlikely to be related to the development of asthma. Avoidance of these pollutants may not be beneficial in preventing the development of asthma in this age group.

ETS-RSP Particulate Marker Factors: Variation in Published Factors and Application to ETS Data from Two Types of Indoor Environments

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is an indoor air pol lutant that causes adverse health effects for exposed non-smokers. To measure the ETS concentration partic ulate tobacco smoke components are identified and are referred to as ETS markers named ultraviolet particulate matter (UVPM), fluorescent particulate matter and sola nesol particulate matter. To determine the contribution of ETS to indoor air pollution empirically derived ETS marker factors are applied. The factors represent a ratio of ETS marker to total respirable suspended particles (RSP) collected under controlled experimental condi tions. The published ETS marker factors for UK ciga rettes varied and when applied to smoking and non- smoking household and public house data produced sig nificantly different data sets (p < 0.05). Non-tobacco sources for UVPM compounds contributed to and over estimated the ETS-UVPM concentration with respect to RSP. This occurred when the published UVPM factors were applied and the predominant source of UVPM was not tobacco. The ETS factors produced acceptable re sults with respect to total RSP collected when tobacco was the predominant source of RSP, as seen by data col lected in public houses.

Monitoring Indoor Air Pollution

Accessible online at: www.karger.com/journals/ibe This special issue of Indoor and Built Environment collects together nearly all of the varied papers presented at the International Conference ‘Monitoring Indoor Air Pollution’, held in Manchester, UK, at the Manchester Metropolitan University, on the 18th and 19th of April 2001. This very successful event, supported by the ISBE, aric at the Manchester Metropolitan University and the Royal Society of Chemistry, involved participants from 12 countries and all continents excepting Antarctica. The conference focused on the theme of monitoring indoor air pollution. Indoor pollution is not a new problem and Manchester, as one of the foremost cities in the industrial revolution, has in its past experienced many indoor pollution problems. Images of children crawling under cotton spinning machines thick with cotton dust graphically illustrate the many industrial problems of the time. These problems were, however, mostly occupational and much has been done worldwide to improve working conditions. But as we solve the most obvious problems, new issues come to light. The UK like many countries is increasingly realising the importance of indoor air pollution in the development of many diseases. We need to understand the role that pollution in homes, offices and public places plays in causing disease or worsening symptoms. This conference provided an opportunity for scientists from around the world to present their work on monitoring indoor environments. As is the case for many ISBE conferences, participation by delegates from Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America and Asia ensured that the problems examined were not restricted to those faced by industrialised countries alone. Indoor air pollution is generally very different to outdoor air pollution. In outdoor situations, there tend to be fewer emission sources and the concentrations of various pollutants in many areas may be dominated by one or two emission sources such as vehicles. In the indoor environment there can be many emission sources emitting an extremely wide range of pollutants. Emission source strengths vary considerably with time; peak concentrations can be very high, yet averages are often similar to outdoor levels. Indoor environments also come in many different forms, from all building types, and the ventilation methods and efficiency vary greatly. The uses to which buildings are put and the activities that take place indoors are also very varied. Dr. Derrick Crump stressed this in his keynote presentation saying that this resulted in a large number of very different microenvironments that need to be studied carefully, using appropriate methods if we are really to understand the risks of indoor air pollution. It is not surprising that, as a result of the many pollutants and the variety of conditions that may exist, indoor

Is treatment for alcohol use disorder associated with reductions in criminal offending? A national data linkage cohort study in England

BACKGROUND This is the first English national study of change in criminal offending following treatment for alcohol use disorder (AUD). METHODS All adults treated for AUD by all publicly funded treatment services during April 2008-March 2009 (n=53,017), with data linked to the Police National Computer (April 2006-November 2011). Pre-treatment offender sub-populations were identified by Latent Profile Analysis. The outcome measure was the count of recordable criminal offences during two-year follow-up after admission. A mixed-effects, Poisson regression modelled outcome, adjusting for demographics and clinical information, the latent classes, and treatment exposure covariates. RESULTS Twenty-two percent of the cohort committed one or more offences in the two years pre-treatment (n=11,742; crude rate, 221.5 offenders per 1000). During follow-up, the number of offenders and offences fell by 23.5% and 24.0%, respectively (crude rate, 69.4 offenders per 1000). During follow-up, a lower number of offences was associated with: completing treatment (adjusted incident rate ratio [IRR] 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.79-0.85); receiving inpatient detoxification (IRR 0.84; CI 0.80-0.89); or community pharmacological therapy (IRR 0.89; CI 0.84-0.96). Reconviction was reduced in the sub-population characterised by driving offences (n=1,140; 11.7%), but was relatively high amongst acquisitive (n=768; 58.3% reconvicted) and violent offending sub-populations (n=602; 77.6% reconvicted). CONCLUSIONS Reduced offending was associated with successful completion of AUD treatment and receiving inpatient and pharmacological therapy, but not enrolment in psychological and residential interventions. Treatment services (particularly those providing psychological therapy and residential care) should be alert to offending, especially violent and acquisitive crime, and enhance crime reduction interventions.