A.F.R. Watson

The introduction of local air quality management in the United Kingdom : A review and theoretical framework

In the light of recent episodes of poor air quality in many of the U.K.s major urban areas, concern has been expressed regarding the apparent inability of existing air quality control procedures to effectively tackle contemporary scenarios. As a result of this, a new philosophy for air quality control has been sought which can provide a solid basis for the preservation and future improvement of air quality. It is proposed that a suitable mechanism for this would be found through the adoption of an integrated and holistic local air quality management approach. This paper will present and discuss a theoretical framework for the application of local air quality management in the U.K. and investigate the potential of the Environment Act (1995) to provide such a framework.

Levels of second hand smoke in pubs and bars by deprivation and food-serving status: a cross-sectional study from North West England

BackgroundThe UK government proposed introducing partial smokefree legislation for England with exemptions for pubs and bars that do not prepare and serve food. We set out to test the hypothesis that pubs from more deprived areas and non food-serving pubs have higher levels of particulate air pollution.MethodsWe conducted a cross sectional study in four mainly urban areas of the North West of England. We recruited a stratified random sample of 64 pubs divided into four groups based on whether their local population was affluent or deprived (using a UK area based deprivation measure), and whether or not they served food. The timing of air quality monitoring stratified to ensure similar distribution of monitoring by day of the week and time of evening between groups. We used a portable air quality monitor to collect fine particle (PM2.5) levels over a minimum of 30 minutes in areas where smoking was allowed,, and calculated mean time-time weighted average PM2.5 levels.ResultsMean PM2.5 was 285.5 μg/m3 (95% CI 212.7 to 358.3). Mean levels in the four groups were: affluent food-serving pubs (n = 16) 188.1 μg/m3 (95%CI 128.1 to 248.1); affluent non food-serving (n = 16) 186.8 μg/m3 (95%CI 118.9 to 254.3); deprived food-serving (n = 17) 399.4 μg/m3 (95%CI 177.7 to 621.2); and deprived non food-serving (n = 15) 365.7 μg/m3 (195.6 to 535.7). Levels were higher in pubs in deprived communities: mean 383.6 μg/m3 (95% CI 249.2 to 518.0) vs 187.4 μg/m3 (144.8 to 229.9); geometric mean 245.2 μg/m3 vs 151.2 μg/m3 (p = 0.03). There was little difference in particulate levels between food and non food-serving pubs.ConclusionThis study adds to the evidence that the UK government’s proposals for partial smokefree legislation in England would offer the least protection to the most heavily exposed group - bar workers and customers in non food-serving pubs in deprived areas. The results suggest these proposals would work against the UK government’s stated aim to reduce health inequalities.

The effects of smoking status and ventilation on environmental tobacco smoke concentrations in public areas of UK pubs and bars

Abstract UK public houses generally allow smoking to occur and consequently customer ETS exposure can take place. To address this, in 1999 the UK Government and the hospitality industry initiated the Public Places Charter (PPC) to increase non-smoking facilities and provide better ventilation in public houses. A study involving 60 UK pubs, located in Greater Manchester, was conducted to investigate the effects of smoking area status and ventilation on ETS concentrations. ETS markers RSP, UVPM, FPM, SolPM and nicotine were sampled and analysed using established methodologies. ETS marker concentrations were significantly higher (P Levels of particulate phase ETS markers were also found to be higher in the smoking sections of pubs that allowed smoking throughout compared to the smoking sections of pubs with other areas where smoking was prohibited. The presence of a non-smoking section has the effect of reducing concentrations even in the smoking areas. This may be caused by migration of smoke into the non-smoking section thereby diluting the smoking area or by smokers tending to avoid pubs with non-smoking areas thus reducing source strengths in the smoking areas of these pubs. Nicotine concentrations were not found to be significantly different in smoking areas of the two types of establishment indicating that nicotine is not as mobile in these environments and tends to remain in the smoking areas. This result, together with the much higher reductions in nicotine concentrations between smoking and non-smoking areas compared to other markers, suggests that nicotine is not the most suitable marker to use in these environments as an indicator of the effectiveness of tobacco control policies. The use of ventilation systems (sophisticated HVAC systems and extractor fans in either the on or off mode) did not have a significant effect (P > 0.05) on ETS marker concentrations in either the smoking or non-smoking areas. The PPC aims to reduce non-smoking customers’ exposure through segregation and ventilation and provide customer choice though appropriate signs. This study indicates that although ETS levels are lower in non-smoking sections and signs will assist customers in reducing their exposure, some exposure will still occur because ETS was detected in non-smoking areas. Existing ventilation provision was not effective in reducing exposure and signs advertising ventilated premises may be misleading to customers. Improvements in the design and management of ventilation systems in pubs and bars are required to reduce customer exposure to ETS, if the aims of the PPC are to be met.

Procedures for the estimation of regional scale atmospheric emissions—An example from the North West Region of England

This paper considers the value of applying an alternative pro rata methodology to the estimation of atmospheric emissions from a given regional or local area. Such investigations into less time and resource intensive means of providing estimates in comparison to traditional methods are important due to the potential role of new methods in the development of air quality management plans. A pro rata approach is used here to estimate emissions of SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, VOCs and black smoke from all sources and Pb from transportation for the North West region of England. This method has the advantage of using readily available data as well as being an easily repeatable procedure which provides a good indication of emissions to be expected from a particular geographical region. This can then provide the impetus for further emission studies and ultimately a regional/local air quality management plan. Results suggest that between 1987 and 1991 trends in the emissions of the pollutants considered have been less favourable in the North West region than in the nation as a whole.

An investigation of micro-scale sealed vessel thermal extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (MSSV-GC-MS#) and micro-scale sealed vessel pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry applied to a standard reference material of an urban dust/organics

Sealed vessel thermal extraction and micro-scaled sealed vessel pyrolysis coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TH-GC-MS and MSSV-GC-MS) were qualitatively applied to a standard reference material of suspended urban dust/organics (NIST Standard Reference Material 1649). Equal amounts of organic compounds and similar concentrations of the most volatile components were produced by both the thermal extract and MSSV techniques. However, the MSSV analyses show notably increased levels of semi-volatile compounds and a reduction in the unresolved complex mass (UCM) related to the higher molecular weight heteropolymers of the particulate. The MSSV technique appears to be breaking down the more complex components that were previously intractable from the particulate substrate and in so doing release lower molecular weight compounds which may be used as a basis for characterising this component. In combination the thermal extraction and the MSSV pyrolysis provide an effective approach for the characterisation of PM10 organics.

Environmental Tobacco Smoke

UK workplace regulations leave hospitality trade workforce unprotected Bans on smoking in public places and workplaces, including bars and restaurants, have recently been introduced in California and New York City and have been announced in Ireland. In addition, the UK Chief Medical Officer1 and the EU Health Commissioner have recently called for a ban on smoking in public places. Despite clear evidence that environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) adversely affects health and is an important occupational health hazard, the current UK policy response and regulatory framework for occupational ETS exposure remains inadequate with no discernable scientific rationale. ETS is a complex mixture of over 3800 gaseous and particulate components, including more than 50 known or suspected human carcinogens and 100 toxic chemicals. Exposure to ETS through passive smoking has been associated with many diseases including lung cancer, and cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.2,3 The impact on cardiovascular disease is particularly important from an occupational and public health perspective. Steenland et al recently estimated that in the USA there are 2000–3000 deaths annually among non-smokers from cardiovascular related disease due to occupational exposure to ETS.4 Occupational exposure to ETS is widespread, with an estimated 7.5 million workers in the EU and 1.3 million workers in the UK exposed to ETS for at least 75% of their working time.5 Many are employed in the hospitality industry on a casual basis in bars, pubs, restaurants, hotels, and nightclubs. Studies have shown high ETS marker concentrations levels in a range of hospitality settings.6,7 “Control measures should be implemented to reduce occupational exposure” The UK has no specific regulatory framework for occupational ETS exposure. The Health …

The Contribution of Environmental Tobacco Smoke to Indoor Pollution in Pubs and Bars

Smoking is currently allowed in most UK pubs and bars and smoking policies are self regulated by the hospitality industry through the Public Places Charter, which encourages the provision of non-smoking areas and improved ventilation. In this study monitoring of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) has been conducted in 60 pubs and bars in the Greater Manchester area to determine the effectiveness of different smoking policies. The ETS markers RSP (as PM2.5), UVPM, FPM, SolPM and nicotine were sampled at several locations in each establishment, using portable monitoring cases and analysed using established methods. ETS concentrations were significantly lower in non-smoking areas in comparison to smoking areas, with reductions of between 27-69%. Bar areas had similar levels to smoking areas. The proportion of particles (RSP) that could be attributed to ETS was considerable even in non-smoking areas (43-55%) indicating that smoking was the major source of particles in these environments. The use of mechanical and/or air cleaning systems resulted in lower average concentrations of ETS markers in comparison to use of extractor fans or natural ventilation, but these differences were not statistically significant.

Indoor Air Quality, Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Asthma: A Case Control Study of Asthma in a Community Population

In recent decades the prevalence of asthma has been increasing in Western countries. Altered environment and lifestyle conditions have been implicated but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. The Indoor Pollutants, Endotoxin, Allergens, Damp and Asthma (IPEADAM) study is a cross-sectional, case control study designed to analyse the home environments of 200 children in Manchester. In this paper the home concentrations and relationships to asthma development have been examined for a variety of indoor agents including environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and damp, which have been reported as potential factors in the development or the exacerbation of asthma. Levels of respirable particles and tobacco specific particles were found to be significantly higher in the homes with smokers present, but there were no differences in the levels of NO2, formaldehyde or VOCs. However, there were no significant differences in the levels of tobacco related pollutants in the homes of children with and without asthma. Similarly there were no statistically significant differences in the levels of NO2, formaldehyde, VOCs, temperature or relative humidity between the homes of children with and without asthma. This study has demonstrated that few differences exist between the home environments of English children, between 4-16 years of age, with asthma and those without the disease. The parameters examined in this study are unlikely to be related to the development of asthma. Avoidance of these pollutants may not be beneficial in preventing the development of asthma in this age group.

ETS-RSP Particulate Marker Factors: Variation in Published Factors and Application to ETS Data from Two Types of Indoor Environments

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is an indoor air pol lutant that causes adverse health effects for exposed non-smokers. To measure the ETS concentration partic ulate tobacco smoke components are identified and are referred to as ETS markers named ultraviolet particulate matter (UVPM), fluorescent particulate matter and sola nesol particulate matter. To determine the contribution of ETS to indoor air pollution empirically derived ETS marker factors are applied. The factors represent a ratio of ETS marker to total respirable suspended particles (RSP) collected under controlled experimental condi tions. The published ETS marker factors for UK ciga rettes varied and when applied to smoking and non- smoking household and public house data produced sig nificantly different data sets (p < 0.05). Non-tobacco sources for UVPM compounds contributed to and over estimated the ETS-UVPM concentration with respect to RSP. This occurred when the published UVPM factors were applied and the predominant source of UVPM was not tobacco. The ETS factors produced acceptable re sults with respect to total RSP collected when tobacco was the predominant source of RSP, as seen by data col lected in public houses.

Estimation of spatially resolved road transport emissions for air quality management applications in the North West region of England

Spatially resolved estimates of combustion and non-combustion related emissions of CO, NOx, VOCs and PM from road transport sources have been made for the North West region of England in 1994. These have been generated using detailed emissions models for combustion related emissions of CO, NOx, VOCs and PM which take into account the different emissions profiles associated with particular vehicle groups, different road types and journeys under cold start conditions. Emissions estimates have been generated for a 1 x 1 km grid covering the regions urban and industrial zones and a 5 x 5 km grid for the whole study area. Emissions models have been generated and applied within a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment. Areas of uncertainty in the estimation procedure have been examined and the results compared with alternative data sources. Although the work centres upon the North West region of England, as far as possible the methods and data sources used are intended to be generic, particularly in respect to other administrative areas of the UK. In this way, this work can be considered to be of wider interest than at the local level alone.