J. A. Hernandez-Blanco

Social structure and space use of Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in Southern Russian Far East based on GPS telemetry data.

To better understand the spatial structure of Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) at the southern edge of their range we fitted 14 tigers (6♀♀ and 8♂♂) with 15 GPS-Argos collars between 2008 and 2011 in 2 study sites: the Ussuriskii Reserve of southern Sikhote-Alin and the Land of the Leopard National Park in southwest Primorye, Russian Far East. Fixed kernel estimates of male home ranges were larger than those of female home ranges (P < 0.05 [mean 95% fixed kernel(♀) = 401 ± 205 km(2) ; mean 95% fixed kernel(♂) = 778 ± 267 km(2)]). The home range size of females varied greatly, but on average was similar to estimates derived from earlier work further north. Low overlap of adjacent home ranges suggested that females retained exclusive territories. Real core areas of females overlapped only slightly, and remained stable over multiple years. The home ranges of adult males were smaller than those of males to the north, and in contrast to previous studies, high overlap among males indicated the absence of territoriality. Nonetheless, real core areas of males did not overlap, suggesting some spatial separation. In comparison to other tiger populations and other areas of the Russian Far East, the sex ratio in our 2 study areas was highly skewed towards males. We believe this skewed sex ratio resulted in the dissolution of territoriality of males due to an inability to defend individual females, with males resorting to scramble competition for mates. Continued monitoring of these sites to determine whether shifts in the sex ratio might result in a return to male territoriality would provide confirmation of our tentative hypothesis.

Application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of the Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica )

The possibility of application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of Amur tigers has been analyzed. The possibility of obtaining information about the size and structure of a home range, discerning the home range core areas, seasonal changes in the use of space by tigers, and collecting detailed data on animals’ activity and characteristics of the use of different elements of landscape and terrain has been demonstrated. In contrast to VHF transmitters, satellite collars allow tigers to be tracked even in the cases of very long travels.

Identifying ecological corridors for Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) and Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis).

The rapid explosion of human populations and the associated development of human-dominated landscapes have drastically reduced and fragmented habitat for tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (Panthera pardus) across Asia, resulting in multiple small populations. However, Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) habitat in Russia has remained largely interconnected, except for a break between tigers in southwest Primorye and the southern Sikhote-Alin Mountains. This habitat patch in southwest Primorye also retains the last population of Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis). Genetic differentiation of tigers in southwest Primorye and the Sikhote-Alin Mountains along with survey data suggest that habitat fragmentation is limiting movement of tigers and leopards across the Razdolnaya River basin. We looked at historical and recent survey data on tigers and leopards and mapped existing cover types to examine land-use patterns of both large felids and humans in the development strip along the Razdolnaya River. We then used least-cost distance analyses to identify the most effective potential corridor to retain connectivity for large felids between Land of the Leopard National Park and Ussuriskii Zapovednik (Reserve). We identified a single potential corridor that still exists with a total distance of 62.5 km from Land of the Leopard National Park to Ussuriskii Zapovednik, mostly (93%) through forested habitat. We recommend formal recognition of a Razdolnaya ecological corridor and provide specific recommendations for each of 3 proposed management sections.

Genetic structure of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) population: Are tigers in Sikhote-Alin and southwest Primorye truly isolated?

We used molecular genetic analyses to noninvasively identify individual Amur tigers and define subpopulations of tigers in the Russian Far East. We identified 63 individuals after genotyping 256 feces, 7 hair and 11 blood samples collected within southern, central and northern Sikhote-Alin, as well as Southwest Primorye. Analysis of nuclear DNA at 9 microsatellite loci demonstrated greater genetic similarity between animals from southern and northern Sikhote-Alin (some 500 km apart) than between animals from Ussuriskii State Nature Reserve and Southwest Primorye (less than 10 km apart at their nearest point), suggesting that a true barrier exists preventing movements of tigers between Southwest Primorye and the southern Sikhote-Alin Mountains.

Spatially explicit capture-recapture method (SECR, SPACECAP): A new approach to determination of the Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica ) population density by means of camera-traps

365 The development of methods of censuring and monitoring of rare animal species is one of the key areas in the development of measures for their mainte nance. Determination of their population density is a priority task for calculation of the number of animals [1]. Implementation of this task without their direct capture and labeling became possible with the appear ance of methods of automated animal photo record ing and individual identification of the recorded indi viduals [2]. As in the case of capturing, a classical method using the principle of capture recapture is applied for determination of the animal population density in this case [3]; however, a number of limita tions is inherent in it. First, the capture season should be quite short in order to satisfy the assumption that the population does not undergo considerable changes during the analysis. Second, the sample size is a criti cal factor for the efficiency of this method. In addi tion, this method does not take into account the spa tial aspect of individual recording distribution, and interpretation of the results obtained is complicated due to the absence of clear determination of the effi cient capture region. The suggested variants of solu tion of these problems using average value of the dis tance between two recaptures (MMDM) or its half (1/2MMDM) [4] are conditional. All these limita tions make this method inaccurate when it is used for the species with a low population density and large regions of habitat (which include large predatory mammals). We tested the method of density determination in the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) population using the capture recapture principle, which takes into account spatial relationships between animal record ings (space capture–recapture, SECR) using the SPACECAP software [5]. The SPACECAP software was specially developed to detect densities by means of closed models of the recapture in camera trap matrixes. Spatially explicit capture recapture models (implemented in SPACECAP) detect directly the ani mal population density based on the history of cap tures and information about spatial placement of cam era traps. All these data are treated using Bayesian models [5]. The main assumption of the method is that each animal has its center of activity with a fixed loca tion. It is assumed that the probability of animal detec tion is inversely proportional to the distance to this center of activity, and each capture is an independent event [6].

Activity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenals axis in the Siberian tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica ) in captivity and in the wild, and its dynamics throughout the year

A noninvasive evaluation method of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenals axis (HPA) activity in the Siberian tiger was verified. Comparison of the activity level of HPA in Siberian tigers in the wild and in captivity, and their alterations over the year was carried out. Significant seasonal differences between activity levels of HPA in tigers in captivity were not found. In the wild, this level was significantly higher, reaching the maximum from November to January, which can be related with an unfavorable influence on tigers in low temperatures and deep snow cover.

Home range structure and space use of a female Amur leopard, Panthera pardus orientalis (Carnivora, Felidae)

Based on the locations reported over 15 months from the satellite GPS-collar of Amur leopard female, we estimated the size of its home range, the time of parturition, the location of dens, and hunting sites for large prey. The successive changes in the size and location of the home range and the core area during 30-day periods were traced. The home range remains stable, when the female moves without cubs outside the estrus period. During estrus and pregnancy, the size of the home range and the core area increases, and the core area is displaced. After the birth, the sizes of the home range and core area are sharply reduced. After the weaning of the Amur leopard female leaves the den and begins to move across the home range, the sizes of the range and the core area start to increase.

Vocal activity of the red deer and the acoustic structure of its rutting calls in the Russian Far East.

144 The red deer Cervus elaphus has established as a species in Central Asia, in the Tarim Basin, approxi mately two million years ago and spread from this basin in two branches. The western branch went through the Caucasus and Carpathian Mountains to Western Europe, and the eastern branch passed the Tien Shan, Altai, and Siberia to eventually reach North America [1–3]. Within the current distribution range covering the overall Holarctic, this species has many subspecies, which differ from each other not only in their size and morphology, but also in the stag rutting calls [1, 2]. The stags of the European subspe cies—Scottish C. e. scoticus [4], Corsican C. e. corsi canus [5], and Spanish C. e. hispanicus [6, 7]—have low frequency rutting calls. However, characteristic of the stags of Siberian and North American subspe cies—Altai wapiti C. e. sibiricus [1, 8], Canadian wapiti C. e. canadensis [9], and Roosevelt elk C. e. roosevelti [10]—are high frequency rutting calls, referred to as bugles.

Chapter 24 – Rescue and Rehabilitation Centers and Reintroductions to the Wild

As human populations increase and overlap with snow leopards, conflicts will undoubtedly occur. In some cases, there will likely be the need to translocate individuals to supplement or restore lost or endangered populations. Therefore, capacity to capture, handle, manage, rehabilitate, and release snow leopards will be important to future management initiatives. A series of case studies represents efforts to restore wild populations or return captive felids to the wild. On the basis of these, we outline procedures and lessons learned that may be applicable in addressing future snow leopard management issues. NABU (German Nature Conservation Union) began working in Kyrgyzstan in 1994 and on Issyk-Kul Biosphere Reserve’s Project Snow Leopard in 1999. The anti-poaching team “Gruppa Bars” was established in 2001 to detain poachers and provide public outreach. In 2002, NABU opened the Snow Leopard Rehabilitation Center in Issyk-Kul District to care for (and release when possible) confiscated and injured snow leopards.