P. A. Sorokin

Social structure and space use of Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in Southern Russian Far East based on GPS telemetry data.

To better understand the spatial structure of Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) at the southern edge of their range we fitted 14 tigers (6♀♀ and 8♂♂) with 15 GPS-Argos collars between 2008 and 2011 in 2 study sites: the Ussuriskii Reserve of southern Sikhote-Alin and the Land of the Leopard National Park in southwest Primorye, Russian Far East. Fixed kernel estimates of male home ranges were larger than those of female home ranges (P < 0.05 [mean 95% fixed kernel(♀) = 401 ± 205 km(2) ; mean 95% fixed kernel(♂) = 778 ± 267 km(2)]). The home range size of females varied greatly, but on average was similar to estimates derived from earlier work further north. Low overlap of adjacent home ranges suggested that females retained exclusive territories. Real core areas of females overlapped only slightly, and remained stable over multiple years. The home ranges of adult males were smaller than those of males to the north, and in contrast to previous studies, high overlap among males indicated the absence of territoriality. Nonetheless, real core areas of males did not overlap, suggesting some spatial separation. In comparison to other tiger populations and other areas of the Russian Far East, the sex ratio in our 2 study areas was highly skewed towards males. We believe this skewed sex ratio resulted in the dissolution of territoriality of males due to an inability to defend individual females, with males resorting to scramble competition for mates. Continued monitoring of these sites to determine whether shifts in the sex ratio might result in a return to male territoriality would provide confirmation of our tentative hypothesis.

Application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of the Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica )

The possibility of application of satellite collars to the study of home range and activity of Amur tigers has been analyzed. The possibility of obtaining information about the size and structure of a home range, discerning the home range core areas, seasonal changes in the use of space by tigers, and collecting detailed data on animals’ activity and characteristics of the use of different elements of landscape and terrain has been demonstrated. In contrast to VHF transmitters, satellite collars allow tigers to be tracked even in the cases of very long travels.

Noninvasive individual identification of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) by molecular-genetic methods.

518 The procedure of noninvasive individual identifi cation of tigers by molecular genetic methods was developed within the framework of the Program of the Amur Tiger Research in the Russian Far East. Using this procedure, the number, sex, and relationships in a group of tigers in Ussuri Nature Reserve, Far East Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences was defined. The comparison of the results of isolation, amplifica tion, and analysis of nuclear DNA fragments from dif ferent samples (blood, hair, and feces) showed their significant similarity in the microsatellite fragment lengths. This indicates the possibility to use feces and hair collected in the Amur tiger habitats for noninva sive individual identification of these animals.

Genetic structure of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) population: Are tigers in Sikhote-Alin and southwest Primorye truly isolated?

We used molecular genetic analyses to noninvasively identify individual Amur tigers and define subpopulations of tigers in the Russian Far East. We identified 63 individuals after genotyping 256 feces, 7 hair and 11 blood samples collected within southern, central and northern Sikhote-Alin, as well as Southwest Primorye. Analysis of nuclear DNA at 9 microsatellite loci demonstrated greater genetic similarity between animals from southern and northern Sikhote-Alin (some 500 km apart) than between animals from Ussuriskii State Nature Reserve and Southwest Primorye (less than 10 km apart at their nearest point), suggesting that a true barrier exists preventing movements of tigers between Southwest Primorye and the southern Sikhote-Alin Mountains.

Spatially explicit capture-recapture method (SECR, SPACECAP): A new approach to determination of the Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica ) population density by means of camera-traps

365 The development of methods of censuring and monitoring of rare animal species is one of the key areas in the development of measures for their mainte nance. Determination of their population density is a priority task for calculation of the number of animals [1]. Implementation of this task without their direct capture and labeling became possible with the appear ance of methods of automated animal photo record ing and individual identification of the recorded indi viduals [2]. As in the case of capturing, a classical method using the principle of capture recapture is applied for determination of the animal population density in this case [3]; however, a number of limita tions is inherent in it. First, the capture season should be quite short in order to satisfy the assumption that the population does not undergo considerable changes during the analysis. Second, the sample size is a criti cal factor for the efficiency of this method. In addi tion, this method does not take into account the spa tial aspect of individual recording distribution, and interpretation of the results obtained is complicated due to the absence of clear determination of the effi cient capture region. The suggested variants of solu tion of these problems using average value of the dis tance between two recaptures (MMDM) or its half (1/2MMDM) [4] are conditional. All these limita tions make this method inaccurate when it is used for the species with a low population density and large regions of habitat (which include large predatory mammals). We tested the method of density determination in the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) population using the capture recapture principle, which takes into account spatial relationships between animal record ings (space capture–recapture, SECR) using the SPACECAP software [5]. The SPACECAP software was specially developed to detect densities by means of closed models of the recapture in camera trap matrixes. Spatially explicit capture recapture models (implemented in SPACECAP) detect directly the ani mal population density based on the history of cap tures and information about spatial placement of cam era traps. All these data are treated using Bayesian models [5]. The main assumption of the method is that each animal has its center of activity with a fixed loca tion. It is assumed that the probability of animal detec tion is inversely proportional to the distance to this center of activity, and each capture is an independent event [6].

Application of molecular genetic characteristics for reintroduction of the leopard (Panthera pardus L., 1758) in the Caucasus

97 Within the framework of the Program of North Persian leopard Reintroduction in the Caucasus, the data on genetic polymorphism in leopard (P. pardus saxicolor) have been obtained for the first time from natural populations of the Russian part of the Cauca sus (Krasnodar krai, North Ossetia), Transcaucasia (Azerbaijan, Armenia), Iran, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. Molecular genetic approaches to subspe cies taxonomy of leopards of unknown (potentially hybrid) origin from zoological gardens and breeding centers have been developed. This analysis with the use of 11 microsatellite loci and a fragment of the NADH5 mitochondrial gene was efficiently used for identification of individuals acceptable for breeding and reintroduction in the West Caucasus. Until recently, the leopard P. pardus was rather widespread in the Caucasus and occupied practically all mountainous territories, but its population drasti cally decreased in the late 19th and early 20th centu ries because of intense extermination and disruption of the food resources, to the extent of complete exter mination in many regions. In 1950, only single speci mens of this species survived in the Caucasus; since the 1960s–1970s, practically no encounters with leopards have been reported. A special program has been developed and is being implemented for restoration of the Asian leopard pop ulation in the Caucasus [1]; along with other mea sures, it envisages the breeding of animals of this sub species in captivity followed by their reintroduction. One of the prerequisites of the implementation of the leopard reintroduction program is correspondence of the genetic state of animals intended for reintroduc tion [2] to that of the animals previously inhabiting this region, with preceding revision of the taxonomic state of leopards from this region. At present, the situation with the taxonomic name of the North Persian leopard is substantially compli cated, and the nomenclature has not been sufficiently developed. A great number of leopard forms the taxo nomic position of which causes disagreement have been described within a spacious natural range embracing the most part of Africa and a significant part of South Asia [3–7].

Activity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenals axis in the Siberian tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica ) in captivity and in the wild, and its dynamics throughout the year

A noninvasive evaluation method of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenals axis (HPA) activity in the Siberian tiger was verified. Comparison of the activity level of HPA in Siberian tigers in the wild and in captivity, and their alterations over the year was carried out. Significant seasonal differences between activity levels of HPA in tigers in captivity were not found. In the wild, this level was significantly higher, reaching the maximum from November to January, which can be related with an unfavorable influence on tigers in low temperatures and deep snow cover.

Home range structure and space use of a female Amur leopard, Panthera pardus orientalis (Carnivora, Felidae)

Based on the locations reported over 15 months from the satellite GPS-collar of Amur leopard female, we estimated the size of its home range, the time of parturition, the location of dens, and hunting sites for large prey. The successive changes in the size and location of the home range and the core area during 30-day periods were traced. The home range remains stable, when the female moves without cubs outside the estrus period. During estrus and pregnancy, the size of the home range and the core area increases, and the core area is displaced. After the birth, the sizes of the home range and core area are sharply reduced. After the weaning of the Amur leopard female leaves the den and begins to move across the home range, the sizes of the range and the core area start to increase.

Genetic diversity and relations of the Goitered gazelle ( Gazella subgutturosa ) groups from Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan: Analysis of the D-loop of mitochondrial DNA

Polymorphism of the nucleotide sequence of a hypervariable fragment of the D-loop (985 bp) of mtDNA in 76 Goitered gazelles of subspecies Gazella subgutturosa subgutturosa from Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Azerbaijan was studied. The genetic similarity of gazelles from Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan has been identified. The population of gazelles from Shirvanskaya steppe reserve (Azerbaijan) is unique and strictly isolated from other groups studied. A high haplotypic (H = 0.9649 ± 0.0091) and relatively low nucleotide diversity (π = 0.0212 ± 0.0105) were noted for all investigated groups of gazelle based on this mtDNA fragment, which is probably related to ecological peculiarities of the species and the history of formation of regional populations.

Noninvasive approach to the assessment of activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal system of the Amur tigers

The state of animals in natural populations can be often assessed only by noninvasive methods. The use of EIA antibodies against corticosterone makes it pos� sible to reveal an increase in the concentration of immunoreactive compounds that bind to antibodies against corticosterone in faeces of tigers both after artificial stimulation of adrenal glands by injection of adrenocorticotropic hormone and after stress (trans� portation of animals). This confirms the possibility of using antibodies against corticosterone for noninva� sive monitoring of the state of the hypothalamicpitu� itaryadrenal system (HPAS) in Amur tigers. The Amur tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica) is a subspe� cies inhabiting the periphery of the species range under conditions that are suboptimal for this species. In this case, exposure to adverse factors with a higher probability may cause an increase in the activity of the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal system (HPAS), which may suppress breeding and even result in ani� mals death. Rehabilitation of tigers withdrawn from nature and their subsequent return to natural environ� ment becomes a relevant method to conserve this spe� cies. However, these operations are associated with transportation of animals, which is a strong stressor. With allowance for the fact that the abundance of the Amur tiger is very low (approximately 500 animals (1)), establishing the factors that endanger this species and determination of the effect of transportation on the stress level of animals are very important for con� servation of Amur tigers and development of rehabili� tation programs for these animals. The welfare of animals is estimated primarily by the HPAS activity, because adverse factors stimulate it and cause an increase in the level of glucocorticoids in blood plasma. Changes in the concentration of gluco� corticoids (first of all, cortisol and corticosterone) in blood plasma compared to their baseline level can serve as a reliable indicator of animals state. At the same time, this method has serious limitations: stress procedures, such as capture, handling, and immobili� zation of animals as such often drastically increase the level of glucocorticoids in blood plasma of animals and leads to a bias in results, because in this case only the response to manipulations is recorded (2).