J.K. Amamcharla

Development of a rapid method for the measurement of lactose in milk using a blood glucose biosensor.

Current methods for lactose measurement in dairy products are time consuming and tedious and may require expensive equipment and skilled technicians. The aim of this research was to develop a novel and rapid method for the routine measurement of lactose in dairy products. The proposed method is based on the rapid hydrolysis of lactose using β-galactosidase and subsequently measuring glucose using a blood glucose meter. Blood glucose meters were developed after decades of research and clinical trials and are used extensively worldwide by individuals with diabetes to monitor their blood glucose levels. The method was developed and validated in a series of experiments. In the first experiment, temperature and time required for the near-complete hydrolysis of lactose were determined. Subsequently, the influence of glucose meters and their test strip lots were evaluated. We found that meters were not significantly different. However, the test strip lots were significantly different from each other. In the second experiment, the proposed method was validated using different concentrations of lactose solutions (1.9-6.5%) and compared with a HPLC-based reference method. In the third experiment, the proposed method was used to determine the lactose content of raw milk. The proposed method shows potential for rapid, routine, and low-cost measurement of lactose in milk and other dairy products.

Evaluation of modified stainless steel surfaces targeted to reduce biofilm formation by common milk sporeformers

The development of bacterial biofilms on stainless steel (SS) surfaces poses a great threat to the quality of milk and other dairy products as the biofilm-embedded bacteria can survive thermal processing. Established biofilms offer cleaning challenges because they are resistant to most of the regular cleaning protocols. Sporeforming thermoduric organisms entrapped within biofilm matrix can also form heat-resistant spores, and may result in a long-term persistent contamination. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of different nonfouling coatings [AMC 18 (Advanced Materials Components Express, Lemont, PA), Dursan (SilcoTek Corporation, Bellefonte, PA), Ni-P-polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Avtec Finishing Systems, New Hope, MN), and Lectrofluor 641 (General Magnaplate Corporation, Linden, NJ)] on SS plate heat exchanger surfaces, to resist the formation of bacterial biofilms. It was hypothesized that modified SS surfaces would promote a lesser amount of deposit buildup and bacterial adhesion as compared with the native SS surface. Vegetative cells of aerobic sporeformers, Geobacillus stearothermophilus (ATCC 15952), Bacillus licheniformis (ATCC 6634), and Bacillus sporothermodurans (DSM 10599), were used to study biofilm development on the modified and native SS surfaces. The adherence of these organisms, though influenced by surface energy and hydrophobicity, exhibited no apparent relation with surface roughness. The Ni-P-PTFE coating exhibited the least bacterial attachment and milk solid deposition, and hence, was the most resistant to biofilm formation. Scanning electron microscopy, which was used to visualize the extent of biofilm formation on modified and native SS surfaces, also revealed lower bacterial attachment on the Ni-P-PTFE as compared with the native SS surface. This study thus provides evidence of reduced biofilm formation on the modified SS surfaces.

Effect of xylitol on the functional properties of low-fat process cheese.

Process cheese (PC) is a dairy food prepared by blending natural cheese, salt, emulsifying salts, and other dairy and nondairy ingredients, and heating with continuous agitation to produce a homogeneous product. Fat is a critical component of PC and plays an important role in its functional characteristics. The health concerns associated with fat consumption have led to an increase in the demand for low-fat dairy products. Reducing the fat content of PC results in poor functional properties such as increased hardness and reduced melt characteristics. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effect of xylitol on the functional properties of low-fat PC. Three different low-fat PC formulations were prepared with 0% (control), 2%, and 4% xylitol. All 3 PC formulations were formulated to contain 5% fat, and each treatment was manufactured in triplicate. Rheological characteristics including elastic modulus, viscous modulus, and temperature at Tanδ = 1 (melt temperature) were determined using dynamic stress rheometry (DSR). The DSR was carried out at a frequency of 1.5 Hz and stress levels of 400 Pa, using a temperature sweep from 20 to 90 °C. The hardness of the samples was determined by using texture profile analysis (TPA). Compositional analysis indicated that all treatments had similar fat, protein, and moisture contents. Elastic and viscous moduli results obtained with DSR showed a significant difference between 0% xylitol (control) and xylitol-containing treatments in the temperature range of 30 to 80 °C. The melt temperature was not significantly different between the 3 treatments. However, TPA demonstrated that the addition of xylitol significantly decreased the hardness of low-fat PC. Based on TPA and DSR data obtained in this study, we determined that xylitol addition improved the functional properties of low-fat PC.

Development of a method to characterize high-protein dairy powders using an ultrasonic flaw detector

Dissolution behavior of high-protein dairy powders plays a critical role for achieving functional and nutritional characteristics of a finished food product. Current methods for evaluating powder dissolution properties are time consuming, difficult to reproduce, and subjective. Ultrasound spectroscopy is a rapid and precise method, but requires expensive equipment and skilled technicians to carry out the tests. In the present study, an ultrasonic flaw detector (UFD) was used as an economical alternative to characterize the powder dissolution properties. The objective of study was to develop a method to characterize the dissolution behavior of milk protein concentrate (MPC) using a UFD. The experimental setup included a UFD connected to a 1-MHz immersion transducer that was kept a constant distance from a reflector plate. To validate the method, 2 batches of MPC80 from a commercial manufacturer were procured and stored at 25 and 40°C for 4 wk. Focus beam reflectance measurement and solubility index were used as reference methods. Relative ultrasound velocity and ultrasound attenuation were acquired during the dissolution of MPC samples. To characterize the MPC dissolution, 4 parameters including standard deviation of relative velocity, area under the attenuation curve, and peak attenuation were extracted from ultrasound data. As the storage temperature and time increased, the area under the attenuation curve and peak height decreased, indicating a loss of solubility. The proposed UFD-based method was able to capture the changes in dissolution of MPC during storage at 25 and 40°C. It was observed that a high-quality MPC had a low standard deviation and a larger area under the attenuation curve. As the MPC aged at 40°C, the particle dispersion rate decreased and, consequently, an increase in standard deviation and reduction in area were observed. Overall, the UFD can be a low-cost method to characterize the dissolution behavior of high-protein dairy powders.

Short communication: Evaluation of a sol-gel–based stainless steel surface modification to reduce fouling and biofilm formation during pasteurization of milk

Milk fouling and biofilms are common problems in the dairy industry across many types of processing equipment. One way to reduce milk fouling and biofilms is to modify the characteristics of milk contact surfaces. This study examines the viability of using Thermolon (Porcelain Industries Inc., Dickson, TN), a sol-gel-based surface modification of stainless steel, during thermal processing of milk. We used stainless steel 316L (control) and sol-gel-modified coupons in this study to evaluate fouling behavior and bacterial adhesion. The surface roughness as measured by an optical profiler indicated that the control coupons had a slightly smoother finish. Contact angle measurements showed that the modified surface led to a higher water contact angle, suggesting a more hydrophobic surface. The modified surface also had a lower surface energy (32.4 ± 1.4 mN/m) than the control surface (41.36 ± 2.7 mN/m). We evaluated the susceptibility of control and modified stainless steel coupons to fouling in a benchtop plate heat exchanger. We observed a significant reduction in the amount of fouled layer on modified surfaces. We found an average fouling weight of 19.21 mg/cm2 and 0.37 mg/cm2 on the control and modified stainless steel coupons, respectively. We also examined the adhesion of Bacillus and biofilm formation, and observed that the modified stainless steel surface offered greater resistance to biofilm formation. Overall, the Thermolon-modified surface showed potential in the thermal processing of milk, offering significantly lower fouling and bacterial attachment than the control surface.

Novel methods to study the effect of protein content and dissolution temperature on the solubility of milk protein concentrate: Focused beam reflectance and ultrasonic flaw detector-based methods

Processing, storage, dissolution conditions, and the composition of milk protein concentrates (MPC) affect the solubility of high-protein dairy powders. Increasing the storage temperature and time decrease the solubility of MPC and milk protein isolates (MPI). The MPC and MPI are popular ingredients in high-protein food products and have a variety of protein contents. In addition, the dissolution temperature has been shown to affect the solubility of the powders. This study focused on determining how protein content and dissolution temperature affect the solubility of MPC and MPI. For this study, 11 powders were obtained from a commercial manufacturer. The powders were classified as A, B, C, and D, and they had a mean protein content of 85, 87, 88, and 90%, respectively. A 5% (wt/wt) concentration of powder was dissolved in water at 40 and 48°C. The solubility of the MPC and MPI samples were characterized using an ultrasonic flaw detector (UFD) and focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM). The UFD and FBRM data were collected every 15 and 10 s, respectively, for 1,800 s. At both dissolution temperatures, the UFD and FBRM data showed that the solubility decreased as the protein content increased. Powders A and B were found to be more soluble because they had a lower relative velocity standard deviation, high area under the attenuation curve, high peak height, and low peak time. With the FBRM, the fine and medium particle count decreased and large particle count increased as the protein content increased. Powders dissolved at 48°C typically had a lower relative velocity standard deviation, higher area under the attenuation curve, higher peak height, and lower peak time than the powders dissolved at 40°C. The FBRM showed that powders dissolved at 48°C reached a stable counts before the powders dissolved at 40°C. Overall, the study showed that increasing the protein content led to a reduction in solubility and increasing the dissolution temperature improved the solubility of the powders.

Evaluation of a rapid protein analyzer for determination of protein in milk and cream

Accurate and rapid measurement of the protein content of milk is important from both a product quality and an economic standpoint. The Sprint rapid protein analyzer (CEM Corporation, Matthews, NC) is a commercial system based on a dye-binding technique and can be used for rapid measurement of protein in foods. The objective of the present study was to compare the Sprint method with the reference method (Kjeldahl method). Milk and cream samples were analyzed in duplicate for true protein and crude protein (CP) using the reference method as well as the rapid method. Method comparison statistics (regression analysis, graphical representation, standard deviation of residuals, repeatability, and so on) were used to evaluate the agreement between the 2 methods. Regression coefficients and the intercepts were not significantly different from 1 and zero for CP measurement in milk and cream, respectively. The average coefficient of variance between the duplicate CP measurements for the Sprint method was found to be 0.40, 0.49, and 0.76 for milk, light cream, and heavy cream, respectively. True protein measurement in milk and cream also followed a similar trend. Overall, there exists a sufficient level of agreement between the Sprint rapid protein analyzer and Kjeldahl method for true protein and CP measurement of milk and cream samples.

Focused beam reflectance measurement as a tool for in situ monitoring of the lactose crystallization process.

Lactose accounts for about 75 and 85% of the solids in whey and deproteinized whey, respectively. Production of lactose is usually carried out by a process called crystallization. Several factors including rate of cooling, presence of impurities, and mixing speed influence the crystal size characteristics. To optimize the lactose crystallization process parameters to maximize the lactose yield, it is important to monitor the crystallization process. However, efficient in situ tools to implement at concentrations relevant to the dairy industry are lacking. The objective of the present work was to use a focused beam reflectance measurement (FBRM) system for in situ monitoring of lactose crystallization at supersaturated concentrations (wt/wt) 50, 55, and 60% at 20 and 30°C. The FBRM data were compared with Brix readings collected using a refractometer during isothermal crystallization. Chord length distributions obtained from FBRM in the ranges of <50 µm (fine crystals) and 50 to 300 µm (coarse crystals) were recorded and evaluated in relation to the extent of crystallization and rate constants deduced from the refractometer measurements. Extent of crystallization and rate constants increased with increasing supersaturation concentration and temperature. The measured fine crystal counts from FBRM increased at higher supersaturated concentration and temperature during isothermal crystallization. On the other hand, coarse counts were observed to increase with decreasing supersaturated concentration and temperature. Square weighted chord length distribution obtained from FBRM showed that as concentration increased, a decrease in chord lengths occurred at 20°C and similar observations were made from microscopic images. The robustness of FBRM in understanding isothermal lactose crystallization at various concentrations and temperatures was successfully assessed in the study.

Possible Application of Electronic Nose Systems for Meat Safety: An Overview

Abstract Electronic nose (E-nose) systems have been used for variety of applications in various fields including Food Science. These systems once properly trained through chemometrics are rapid, easy to operate, and reliable. Hence, E-nose systems will be a fast and reliable tool for sensing the presence of spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms present in meat. This chapter discusses the basic components required to design an E-nose system for meat applications and reviews the E-nose systems developed by various researchers over the years.

Short communication: A comparison of biofilm development on stainless steel and modified-surface plate heat exchangers during a 17-h milk pasteurization run

Flow of milk through the plate heat exchanger (PHE) results in denaturation of proteins, resulting in fouling. This also accelerates bacterial adhesion on the PHE surface, eventually leading to the development of biofilms. During prolonged processing, these biofilms result in shedding of bacteria and cross-contaminate the milk being processed, thereby limiting the duration of production runs. Altering the surface properties of PHE, such as surface energy and hydrophobicity, could be an effective approach to reduce biofouling. This study was conducted to compare the extent of biofouling on native stainless steel (SS) and modified-surface [Ni-P-polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)] PHE during the pasteurization of raw milk for an uninterrupted processing run of 17 h. For microbial studies, raw and pasteurized milk samples were aseptically collected from inlets and outlets of both PHE at various time intervals to examine shedding of bacteria in the milk. At the end of the run, 3M quick swabs (3M, St. Paul, MN) and ATP swabs (Charm Sciences Inc., Lawrence, MA) were used to sample plates from different sections of the pasteurizers (regeneration, heating, and cooling) for biofilm screening and to estimate the efficiency of cleaning in place, respectively. The data were tested for ANOVA, and means were compared. Modified PHE experienced lower mesophilic and thermophilic bacterial attachment and biofilm formation (average log 1.0 and 0.99 cfu/cm2, respectively) in the regenerative section of the pasteurizer compared with SS PHE (average log 1.49 and 1.47, respectively). Similarly, higher relative light units were observed for SS PHE compared with the modified PHE, illustrating the presence of more organic matter on the surface of SS PHE at the end of the run. In addition, at h 17, milk collected from the outlet of SS PHE showed plate counts of 5.44 cfu/cm2, which were significantly higher than those for pasteurized milk collected from modified PHE (4.12 log cfu/cm2). This provided further evidence in favor of the modified PHE achieving better microbial quality of pasteurized milk in long process runs. Moreover, because cleaning SS PHE involves an acid treatment step, whereas an alkali treatment step is sufficient for the modified-surface PHE, use of the latter is both cost and time effective, making it a better surface for thermal processing of milk and other fluid dairy products.