J. Macbeth

Tourism as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation: A Critical Analysis of ‘Pro-Poor Tourism’ and Implications for Sustainability

Forecasts of high tourism growth in developing nations, where widespread poverty exists, has led to considerable interest in tourism as a tool for poverty alleviation. Powerful bureaucratic and business alliances have been forged to expand this programme. International development agencies are also turning to tourism as a way of alleviating poverty. This is sometimes termed ‘pro-poor tourism’ (PPT). Distinguished from other forms of ‘alternative tourisms’ such as ecotourism and community-based tourism, the stakeholders involved in this enterprise are no less divided. Ideological divisions manifest themselves in the political struggle over how tourism in developing countries should unfold. This paper identifies the different sustainability positions of prominent pro-poor tourism stakeholders and considers the implications for meeting pro-poor and sustainability objectives. Generally, tourism is too often regarded a panacea without an attendant recognition that, like any other industrial activity, tourism is highly political. As a global industry, tourism operates within a neo-liberal market economy which presents severe challenges to meeting pro-poor and sustainable development objectives. This paper therefore recommends a fundamental re-evaluation of tourisms pro-poor potential in the absence of significant commitment to directly address structural inequities which exacerbate poverty and constrain pro-poor attempts.

Social Capital, Tourism and Regional Development: SPCC as a Basis for Innovation and Sustainability

Traditional views of regional development have focused on economic factors and potential innovation in technical and resource exploitation processes. Similarly, regional tourism development is usually couched in economic terms, such as number of jobs and increasing land values. This approach usually ignores the social and community aspects of tourism development; thus an alternative view argues that the community needs to be factored into our planning and development strategies to balance the traditional economic view. It is argued in this paper that fostering innovation in regional development is much more than a process of community consultation. Rather, what needs to be factored in is SPCC – social, political and cultural capital. This works in both directions; tourism development depends on a level of social, political and cultural capital in order to be a successful regional development tool (even in economic terms) while at the same time tourism development can be undertaken in a way that contributes to SPCC in the region. The paper outlines the key concepts of social capital, political capital and cultural capital. It does so within the context of regional tourism development and the concepts of systems of innovation and sustainable development.

Backpackers and empowered local communities. Natural allies in the struggle for sustainability and local control

Drifter-style tourism world-wide has become a sanitized and institutionalized tourism alternative. Over the last thirty years it has developed its own tourism myth and spawned a mobile sub-culture of international backpackers. Utilizing an almost entirely separate tourism infrastructure, these travellers follow distinctive trails of their own. Dotted along these trails, like magnets in a stream of charged particles, lie sub-cultural meeting places. These traveller centres are more than simply infrastructure or scenery; their ‘fame’, their world status as ‘must do’ places, transcends their physical attributes as they develop, maintain and then frequently loose this mythical quality. At the same time, the local inhabitants of those communities have frequently represented little more than pawns in a much larger game controlled by outsiders. However, while in the past this ‘resort cycle’ was accepted as inevitable, there have been a number of instances where local residents’ resistance against the intended transformation of their community has resulted in attempts to slow down if not terminate this cycle altogether. This study of Byron Bay, Australia, suggests that backpackers may well represent natural allies as well as an alternative market for those communities engaged in the struggle for sustainability and local control.

Should dingoes die? Principles for engaging ecocentric ethics in wildlife tourism management

Ethics underlie all our decisions and actions. The aim of this paper is to, first, highlight the sorts of ethical positions that inform wildlife management and, second, to propose a different set of ecocentric ethical principles that not only provide for a more authentic visitor experience of nature, but also enhance the long-term survival of wildlife. An ecocentric approach involves locating people in, rather than separate from, nature, and so is not possible in locations such as zoos where barriers are physically constructed and maintained between people and wildlife, but should be more compatible with wildlife tourism that is based in rather than on nature. Focusing on wildlife tourism based in nature, seven principles derived from the literature are applied to a case study of dingo management on Fraser Island in Queensland, Australia. The case study demonstrates that recognising the intrinsic value of wildlife and developing a sense of moral obligation and moral reasoning toward the wildlife tourism experience can have positive outcomes for both people and wildlife. If management strategies work within a precautionary principle, acknowledge the interconnectedness between people and nature, and accept that wildlife belongs in nature, then a more ecocentric ethic is possible. This requires managers to engage in a reflexive process with regard to their own ethical position to facilitate the practical application of an ecocentric approach.

Deep in the desert: Merging the desert and the spiritual through 4WD tourism

Abstract Our paper positions four-wheel drive (4WD) travel into the Australian desert by veteran or dedicated travellers as a spiritual experience in three ways: by considering the desert itself as a sacred space; the experience of such a journey as a form of ‘nature religion’; and by viewing the actual journey itself as pilgrimage. Our argument is informed by interviews with expert 4WDers to the desert. Our study might be useful in designing sustainable strategies for 4WD desert tourism, as well as for scholars from a variety of disciplines such as sustainability and environment studies, religious studies and tourism studies, to name a few.

Limitations of Resident Perception Surveys for Understanding Tourism Social Impacts The Need for Triangulation

Resident perceptions survey (RPS) approaches to social impact assessment (SIA) in tourism are currently in vogue, but little discussion has taken place over the validity of this approach to SIA. This paper contends that there are serious limitations involved in RPS approaches when employed as a stand-alone SIA method, which throw doubt on whether the results obtained from these surveys in fact indicate actual impacts from tourism at all. While it is not disputed that the RPS approach can be an important SIA tool, it is argued that RPS results—if they are to be accepted as valid measures of social impacts—need to be supplemented by other research data, such as that obtained from visitor surveys, participant observation, in-depth interviews and, of particular focus in this paper, quantitative social indicator research. An integrated approach is recommended that aims to determine whether the impacts indicated in RPS results derive from tourism development or are caused by external factors, including factors that may well be ‘imaginary’ in nature. Hence, a combined approach attempts to triangulate the causal variables underlying the perceived impacts. The importance of undertaking such triangulation is not only to further understanding of the effects of tourism development on host communities, but to ensure that the incorporation of resident attitudes into tourism planning is undertaken in an informed manner that will benefit all concerned.

Exploring the motivations, experiences and meanings of camping in national parks

Camping in natural areas such as national parks is an important social activity and provides a way of reconnecting with nature to achieve personal, social, and health benefits. Experience and meanings are not well understood regarding camping in natural areas, and recent research is limited. The aim of this qualitative study was to examine the motivations, experiences, and higher-order meanings of camping in two national parks in Western Australia, with a particular focus on the last of these. Important associated motivations included the “push” factor of addressing feelings of disconnection from nature, others, and self; and the “pull” factor of experiencing nature. Re-creation, reconnection and reaffirmation were key higher-order meanings. A deeper understanding of the camping experience highlights the importance of the people-natural environment relationship and shows how camping can benefit individuals and society.

Understanding the conflicting values associated with motorized recreation in protected areas.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature World Parks Congress in 2014 reported that the quality of management of protected areas is crucial in halting the loss of the world’s biodiversity and meeting global environmental challenges. However, increasingly high-impact activities, including motorized recreation are occurring in protected areas such as national parks, creating an ongoing clash of values and further compromising protected area management. This paper discusses the values of protected areas in the context of increasingly high-impact motorized usage, the impact of divergent values placed on green spaces such as national parks, and perceptions about these spaces. Given the changing global context of this millennium, and increasing populations requiring space for high-impact activities including motorized recreation, rethinking recreation in protected areas is needed. A protected area classification to accommodate high-impact activities away from vulnerable natural areas may assist in maintaining protected area quality.

Can a Niche-Market Captive-Wildlife Facility Place a Low-Profile Region on the Tourism Map? An Example from Western Australia

ABSTRACT Rural areas often present special problems in terms of tourism development owing to a lack of product, market access and infrastructure. This paper presents the findings of a case study focusing on the central southern wheat belt of Western Australia, in an area known as Dryandra Country. This area embarked on a tourism development initiative centred on a woodland and its wildlife tourism product. The aim was to develop the woodland as an internationally significant nature-based destination. This was attempted partly through constructing a captive-wildlife tourism facility, Barna Mia, housing some rare local fauna. Research during 2003 found that, while Barna Mia provided a highly satisfying experience for its visitors, there was little indication that it was progressing toward the international tourism icon status as intended. Further efforts to develop a co-ordinated regional product also appeared to be slow owing to factors relating to management of Barna Mia and tourism development in the wider region. This paper explores the issues as they were in 2003 and identifies key factors influencing the progress of tourism development in a low-profile region.

Governance and environmental implications of motorised events: insights from Australia and avenues for further inquiry

A four-tiered approach to understanding motorised recreation in natural and protected areas is introduced, using examples of motor events from Australia to demonstrate each conceptual level. The aim is to increase understanding of motorsport and motorised recreation phenomena that impact natural and, in particular, protected areas and other users of the natural environment. An illustrative study approach shows the interrelatedness of multi-level motorised recreation and its governance, from local community motor clubs and amateur motor racing competition through to international hallmark motor racing events and how their sociocultural significance influences protected area management. The illustrative examples show user groups engaged in governance and policy issues of motorised recreation in natural and protected areas. These groups include both motor clubs involved with environmental management of natural and protected areas, as well as professional and community groups opposed to motorised recreation in protected areas. An agenda for further research is identified, including policy and governance of motorsport, large-scale events and protected area management and impacts of motorised recreation and events on the environment and the community including those who access the natural environment for more contemplative and quiet leisure pursuits.