J.P.M. Hoefnagels

Absolute surface coverage measurement using a vibrational overtone

Determination of absolute surface coverage with sub-monolayer sensitivity is demonstrated using evanescent-wave cavity ring-down spectroscopy (EW-CRDS) and conventional CRDS by employing conservation of the absolute integrated absorption intensity between gas and adsorbed phases. The first C-H stretching overtones of trichloroethylene (TCE), cis-dichloroethylene, and trans-dichloroethylene are probed using the idler of a seeded optical parametric amplifier having a 0.075 cm(-1) line width. Polarized absolute adsorbate spectra are obtained by EW-CRDS using a fused-silica monolithic folded resonator having a finesse of 28 500 at 6050 cm(-1), while absolute absorption cross sections for the gas-phase species are determined by conventional CRDS. A measure of the average transition moment orientation on the surface, which is utilized for the coverage determination, is derived from the polarization anisotropy of the surface spectra. Coverage measurement by EW-CRDS is compared to a mass-spectrometer-based surface-uptake technique, which we also employ for coverage measurements of TCE on thermally grown SiO(2) surfaces. To assess the potential for environmental sensing, we also compare EW-CRDS to optical waveguide techniques developed previously for TCE detection.

Analysis of the Three-Dimensional Delamination Behavior of Stretchable Electronics Applications

Stretchable electronics offer potential application areas in biological implants interacting with human tissue, while also facilitating increased design freedom in electronics. A key requirement on these products is the ability to withstand large deformations during usage without losing their integrity. Experimental observations show that delamination between the metal conductor lines and the stretchable substrate may eventually lead to short circuits while also the delaminated area could result in cohesive failure of the metal lines. Interestingly, peel tests show that the rubber is severely lifted at the delamination front caused by its high compliance. To quantify the interface in terms of cohesive zone properties, these parameters are varied such that the experimental and numerical peel-force curve and rubber-lift geometry at the delamination front match. The thus obtained interface properties are used to simulate the delamination behavior of actual three-dimensional stretchable electronics samples loaded in tension.

Ultra-Stretchable Interconnects for High-Density Stretchable Electronics

The exciting field of stretchable electronics (SE) promises numerous novel applications, particularly in-body and medical diagnostics devices. However, future advanced SE miniature devices will require high-density, extremely stretchable interconnects with micron-scale footprints, which calls for proven standardized (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-type) process recipes using bulk integrated circuit (IC) microfabrication tools and fine-pitch photolithography patterning. Here, we address this combined challenge of microfabrication with extreme stretchability for high-density SE devices by introducing CMOS-enabled, free-standing, miniaturized interconnect structures that fully exploit their 3D kinematic freedom through an interplay of buckling, torsion, and bending to maximize stretchability. Integration with standard CMOS-type batch processing is assured by utilizing the Flex-to-Rigid (F2R) post-processing technology to make the back-end-of-line interconnect structures free-standing, thus enabling the routine microfabrication of highly-stretchable interconnects. The performance and reproducibility of these free-standing structures is promising: an elastic stretch beyond 2000% and ultimate (plastic) stretch beyond 3000%, with <0.3% resistance change, and >10 million cycles at 1000% stretch with <1% resistance change. This generic technology provides a new route to exciting highly-stretchable miniature devices.

A bulge test based methodology for characterizing ultra-thin buckled membranes

Abstract Buckled membranes become ever more important with further miniaturization and development of ultra-thin film based systems. It is well established that the bulge test method, generally considered the gold standard for characterizing freestanding thin films, is unsuited to characterize buckled membranes, because of compressive residual stresses and a negligible out-of-plane bending stiffness. When pressurized, buckled membranes immediately start entering the ripple regime, but they typically plastically deform or fracture before reaching the cylindrical regime. In this paper the bulge test method is extended to enable characterization of buckled freestanding ultra-thin membranes in the ripple regime. In a combined experimental-numerical approach, the advanced technique of digital height correlation was first extended towards the sub-micron scale, to enable measurement of the highly varying local 3D strain and curvature fields on top of a single ripple in a total region of interest as small as ~25 μm. Subsequently, a finite element model was set up to analyze the post-buckled membrane under pressure loading. In the seemingly complex ripple configuration, a suitable combination of local region of interest and pressure range was identified for which the stress-strain state can be extracted from the local strain and curvature fields. This enables the extraction of both the Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio from a single bulge sample, contrary to the conventional bulge test method. Virtual experiments demonstrate the feasibility of the approach, while real proof of principle of the method was demonstrated for fragile specimens with rather narrow (~25 μm) ripples.

Novel image correlation based techniques for mechanical analysis of MEMS

Three techniques have been developed to analyze the mechanical behavior of micromechanical systems, in particular stretchable electronic interconnects. The techniques are all digital image correlation (DIC) based and vary in the type of images used for correlation and the way of regularizing the displacement field, needed because of the ill-posed nature of DIC problems. The first two techniques use Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines (NURBS) which are adaptively refined to autonomously obtain an optimized set of shape functions for the considered problem. The first method applies this to regular grayscale speckle images, while the second technique requires profilometric height images to calculate not only the in-plane deformation, but also the out-of-plane component of the displacement field. The third method is an integrated DIC approach and is coupled to a finite element (FE) model of the sample for regularization of the displacement field. It correlates projections of the sample contour rather than a speckle pattern, which makes the method suitable for large, complex and three-dimensional displacements and cases where speckle pattern application is difficult, such as microscale samples. Application of the techniques to i.a. stretchable electronic interconnects yields good results.

On the Boundary Conditions and Optimization Methods in Integrated Digital Image Correlation

In integrated digital image correlation (IDIC) methods attention must be paid to the influence of using a correct geometric and material model, but also to make the boundary conditions in the FE simulation match the real experiment. Another issue is the robustness and convergence of the IDIC algorithm itself, especially in cases when (FEM) simulations are slow. These two issues have been explored in this proceeding. The basis of the algorithm is the minimization of the residual. Different approaches for this minimization exist, of which a Gauss-Newton method is used most often. In this paper several other methods are presented as well and their performance is compared in terms of number of FE simulations needed, since this is the most time-consuming step in the iterative procedure. Beside method-specific recommendations, the main finding of this work is that, in practical use of IDIC, it is recommended to start using a very robust, but slow, derivative-free optimization method (e.g. Nelder-Mead) to determine the search direction and increasing the initial guess accuracy, while after some iterations, it is recommended to switch to a faster gradient-based method, e.g. (update-limited) Gauss-Newton.

Advances in Delamination Modeling of Metal/Polymer Systems: Continuum Aspects

Adhesion and delamination have been pervasive problems hampering the performance and reliability of micro- and nano-electronic devices. In order to understand, predict, and ultimately prevent interface failure in electronic devices, development of accurate, robust, and efficient delamination testing and prediction methods is crucial. Adhesion is essentially a multi-scale phenomenon: at the smallest scale possible, it is defined by the thermodynamic work of adhesion. At larger scales, additional dissipative mechanisms may be active which results in enhanced adhesion at the macroscopic scale and are the main cause for the mode angle dependency of the interface toughness. Undoubtedly, the macroscopic adhesion properties are a complex function of all dissipation mechanisms across the scales. Thorough understanding of the significance of each of these dissipative mechanisms is of utmost importance in order to establish physically correct, unambiguous values of the adhesion properties, which can only be achieved by proper multi-scale techniques.

A Platform for Mechano(-Electrical) Characterization of Free-Standing Micron-Sized Structures and Interconnects

A device for studying the mechanical and electrical behavior of free-standing micro-fabricated metal structures, subjected to a very large deformation, is presented in this paper. The free-standing structures are intended to serve as interconnects in high-density, highly stretchable electronic circuits. For an easy, damage-free handling and mounting of these free-standing structures, the device is designed to be fabricated as a single chip/unit that is separated into two independently movable parts after it is fixed in the tensile test stage. Furthermore, the fabrication method allows for test structures of different geometries to be easily fabricated on the same substrate. The utility of the device has been demonstrated by stretching the free-standing interconnect structures in excess of 1000% while simultaneously measuring their electrical resistance. Important design considerations and encountered processing challenges and their solutions are discussed in this paper.

Crystal Plasticity Parameter Identification by Integrated DIC on Microscopic Topographies

The present study unravels details of the micromechanical behavior of a micro-specimen made of IF-steel. A triangular prism is machined via focused ion beam (FIB) and contains two ferritic grains. Four experimental tools are integrated to identify the material’s crystal parameters: (i) an optical confocal microscope captures height profile images, (ii) an in-situ tensile stage prescribes the loading history to the macro-specimen, (iii) a global Digital Image Correlation (DIC) algorithm measures the 3D surface displacement fields, and iv) an extension of Integrated-DIC for 3D displacement fields is implemented to assess the micromechanical behavior. It is demonstrated that with this methodology the identification of the boundary conditions and crystal plasticity parameters is successfully achieved.

Micromechanical Characterization of Ductile Damage in DP Steel

Weight minimization triggered the automotive industry to introduce new advanced high strength steels that show ductile fracture by microvoid evolution under deformation, resulting in unexpected failure without significant necking. Therefore, an extensive study was initiated to gain insight on the formation and development of microstructural damage in dual phase (DP) steel from a mechanical point of view.