Jacqui A. Macdonald

Age-related differences in inhibitory control in the early school years

The transition to school is associated with a greater requirement to inhibit irrelevant or inappropriate thought and behavior in order to concentrate on effective learning and to interact successfully with peers. Current knowledge of inhibitory control development in the early school years is limited due to a lack of normative data from age-appropriate, sensitive measures. In this study, three pictorial versions of the Stroop task were administered to investigate inhibitory control development in early school-aged children. Age-related trajectories of inhibition and effects of gender were examined in 80 children (42 boys) aged 5 to 8 years. All children were assessed with the Cognitive Assessment System Expressive Attention subtest (Big-Small Stroop), Fruit Stroop, and Boy-Girl Stroop. The Big-Small Stroop revealed substantial age-related improvement in inhibition from 5 to 7 years with a levelling of performance at 8 years of age, while the Fruit Stroop and Boy-Girl Stroop demonstrated clear but nonsignificant age trends. In particular, older children committed fewer errors and corrected their errors more frequently than younger children. Performance on all Stroop tasks correlated significantly, providing evidence that they tap similar cognitive abilities. Some gender differences were found. This study indicates that inhibitory skills develop rapidly in the early school years and suggests that error awareness may be a useful indicator of the development of cognitive inhibition for this age group.

Developmental antecedents of abnormal eating attitudes and behaviors in adolescence

OBJECTIVE This study capitalizes on developmental data from an Australian population-based birth cohort to identify developmental markers of abnormal eating attitudes and behaviors in adolescence. The aims were twofold: (1) to develop a comprehensive path model identifying infant and childhood developmental correlates of Abnormal Eating Attitudes and Behaviors in adolescence, and (2) to explore potential gender differences. METHOD Data were drawn from a 30-year longitudinal study that has followed the health and development of a population based cohort across 15 waves of data collection from infancy since 1983: The Australian Temperament Project. Participants in this analysis were the 1,300 youth who completed the 11th survey at 15-16 years (1998) and who completed the eating disorder inventory at this time point. RESULTS Developmental correlates of Abnormal Eating Attitudes and Behaviors in mid-adolescence were temperamental persistence, early gestational age, persistent high weight, teen depression, stronger peer relationships, maternal dieting behavior, and pubertal timing. Overall, these factors accounted for 28% of the variance in Abnormal Eating Attitudes and Behaviors at 15-16 years of age. Depressive symptoms, maternal dieting behavior, and early puberty were more important factors for girls. Late puberty was a more important factor for boys. DISCUSSION Findings address an important gap in our understanding of the etiology of Abnormal Eating Attitudes and Behaviors in adolescence and suggest multiple targets for preventive intervention.

Relationships between problematic alcohol consumption and delinquent behaviour from adolescence to young adulthood

BACKGROUND Heavy episodic drinking (HED) has been associated with increased risk for short- and long-term injury and harms, such as violence and delinquent behaviour; however, the temporal relationship between the two remains unclear, particularly on transition to young adulthood. This study investigates transactional pathways between HED and delinquent behaviour from adolescence to emerging adulthood. METHODS Data were drawn from the Australian Temperament Project; a population-based longitudinal study that has followed the health and development of participants (and parents) across 30 years from birth in 1982. The analytic sample was 1650 participants and included five measurement waves spanning adolescence (3 waves: 13-18 years) and young adulthood (2 waves; 19-24 years). RESULTS There was strong continuity across waves of both HED and delinquency, as well as across-time associations between them. Delinquent behaviour in adolescence was associated with up to twofold increases in the odds of HED at each subsequent adolescent wave. HED in the late teens was associated with over fourfold increases in the odds of persistent (two waves) HED in young adulthood. HED in the late teens was associated with increases in the odds of delinquent behaviour in young adulthood (over twofold for male and one and a half-fold for female participants). CONCLUSIONS While delinquent behaviour predicts both future HED and future delinquent behaviour in adolescence, once young people reach the legal drinking age of 18 years, HED becomes a predictor of current and future delinquent behaviour and future HED, suggesting that increased access to alcohol increases the likelihood of young people engaging in delinquent behaviour. [Miller PG, Butler E, Richardson B, Staiger PK, Youssef GJ, Macdonald JA, Sanson A, Edwards B, Olsson CA. Relationships between problematic alcohol consumption and delinquent behaviour from adolescence to young adulthood. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016;35:317-325].

Maternal Bonding through Pregnancy and Postnatal: Findings from an Australian Longitudinal Study

Background Mother‐infant bonding provides the foundation for secure attachment through the lifespan and organizes many facets of infant social‐emotional development, including later parenting. Aims To describe maternal bonding to offspring across the pregnancy and postnatal periods, and to examine a broad range of sociodemographic and psychosocial predictors of the maternal‐offspring bond. Methods Data were drawn from a sample of 372 pregnant women participating in an Australian population‐based longitudinal study of postnatal health and development. Participants completed maternal bonding questionnaires at each trimester and 8 weeks postnatal. Data were collected on a range of sociodemographic and psychosocial factors. Results Bonding increased significantly through pregnancy, in quality and intensity. Regression analyses indicated that stronger antenatal bonding at all time points (trimesters 1 through 3) predicted stronger postnatal bonding. Older maternal age, birth mother being born in a non‐English speaking country, mother not working full time, being a first‐time mother, breast‐feeding problems, and babys crying behavior all predicted poorer bonding at 8 weeks postpartum. Conclusion These novel findings have important implications for pregnant women and their infant offspring, and for health care professionals working in perinatal services. Importantly, interventions to strengthen maternal‐fetal bonding would be beneficial during pregnancy to enhance postnatal bonding and infant health outcomes.

Associations between parent–child relationship quality and obesogenic risk in adolescence: a systematic review of recent literature

Adolescence is a period of significant cognitive, social and physiological change, presenting unique risk factors for weight gain. Childhood obesity research has traditionally focused on the influence of parent‐level factors on childrens eating and weight status. Increasingly, emphasis is turning towards the reciprocal nature of the parent–child relationship and its influence on health behaviour. A systematic literature review was conducted to investigate the relationship between parent–child relationship quality (defined as the felt emotional bond between parent and child) and obesogenic risk (weight status, eating attitudes and behaviours, level of physical activity and sedentary behaviour) in adolescence; 26 papers were included in the review. The results neither support nor challenge an association between parent–child relationship quality and weight, with study design flaws and limited measurement of the parent–child relationship precluding robust conclusions. The review does however suggests that several aspects of the parent–child relationship are important in understanding eating attitudes and behaviours, including the felt emotional bond between the parent and child, the childs perception of how much the parent cares for them and the mothers sensitivity towards the child. The need for further longitudinal research into the association between parent–child relationship quality and obesity risk across this developmental period is discussed.

Family dissolution and offspring depression and depressive symptoms: A systematic review of moderation effects.

BACKGROUND Parental separation is associated with increased risk for offspring depression; however, depression outcomes are divergent. Knowledge of moderators could assist in understanding idiosyncratic outcomes and developing appropriately targeted prevention programs for those at heightened risk of depression following parental separation. Therefore, the objective of the review was to identify and evaluate studies that examined moderators of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression METHODS A search of scientific, medical and psychological databases was conducted in April 2015 for longitudinal research that had evaluated any moderator/s of the relationship between parental separation or divorce and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. Papers were assessed for quality by evaluating the studys sample, attrition rates, methodology and measurement characteristics. RESULTS Fourteen quantitative studies from five countries assessed sixteen moderating factors of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. A number of factors were found to moderate this relationship, including offspring gender, age (at assessment and at depression onset), genotype, preadolescent temperament, IQ, emotional problems in childhood and maternal sensitivity. LIMITATIONS While robust longitudinal research was selected for inclusion, common issues with longitudinal studies such as low rates of participation and attrition were among the methodological concerns evident in some of the reviewed papers. CONCLUSIONS The current review is the first to assess interaction effects of the relationship between parental separation and offspring depression or depressive symptoms. While further research is recommended, this assessment is critical in understanding variation in heterogeneous populations and can inform targeted policy and prevention.

The natural history of internalizing behaviours from adolescence to emerging adulthood: findings from the Australian Temperament Project

BACKGROUND The aims of the study were to describe the patterning and persistence of anxiety and depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood and to examine long-term developmental relationships with earlier patterns of internalizing behaviours in childhood. METHOD We used parallel processes latent growth curve modelling to build trajectories of internalizing from adolescence to adulthood, using seven waves of follow-ups (ages 11-27 years) from 1406 participants of the Australian Temperament Project. We then used latent factors to capture the stability of maternal reported child internalizing symptoms across three waves of early childhood follow-ups (ages 5, 7 and 9 years), and examined relationships among these patterns of symptoms across the three developmental periods, adjusting for gender and socio-economic status. RESULTS We observed strong continuity in depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood. In contrast, adolescent anxiety was not persistent across the same period, nor was it related to later depressive symptoms. Anxiety was, however, related to non-specific stress in young adulthood, but only moderately so. Although childhood internalizing was related to adolescent and adult profiles, the associations were weak and indirect by adulthood, suggesting that other factors are important in the development of internalizing symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Once established, adolescent depressive symptoms are not only strongly persistent, but also have the potential to differentiate into anxiety in young adulthood. Relationships with childhood internalizing symptoms are weak, suggesting that early adolescence may be an important period for targeted intervention, but also that further research into the childhood origins of internalizing behaviours is needed.

Negative reactivity and parental warmth in early adolescence and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood

Objective Cross‐sectional research suggests that relationships between temperamental negative reactivity and adolescent depressive symptoms may be moderated by parental warmth. The primary purpose of this study was to conduct the first prospective analysis of this relationship. Method Data from 1,147 families in an Australian population‐based longitudinal study were used to examine: (1) temporal relationships between negative reactivity in early adolescence (13–14 years) and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood (19–20 years); (2) the moderating role of parent‐reported warmth in early adolescence (13–14 years); and (3) the moderating role of child gender. Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to test the hypothesis that parental warmth would moderate the relationship between early adolescent negative reactivity and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Results After accounting for previous depressive symptoms at age 13–14 years, negative reactivity was positively associated with later depressive symptoms. By contrast, parental warmth at 13–14 years was negatively associated with later depressive symptoms for females but not males. Parental warmth did not moderate the association between early adolescent negative reactivity and subsequent depressive symptoms. Conclusions This study was the first to use prospective data to assess the protective effects of early adolescent parental warmth on the association between negative reactive temperaments and early adult depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that parental warmth for negatively reactive children provides only concurrent protection against subsequent depressive risk. This study did not examine parent–child transactional models, which may, in future longitudinal research, improve understanding of how trajectories of parent–child goodness‐of‐fit contribute to depressive symptoms.

Psychosocial profiles of adolescents from dissolved families: Differences in depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood

BACKGROUND When parents separate, on average, children are at greater risk for concurrent and subsequent depression; however, mean outcomes mask substantial variation in depressive risk. This study aimed to (1) identify multivariate risk profiles (classes) in adolescents from separated families and (2) prospectively estimate class risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. METHODS The sample comprised 449 participants with separated parents from an Australian population based longitudinal cohort study established in 1983. Classes were explored using 17, theoretically germane, self- and parent-reported indicators of adolescent risk assessed at three points in adolescence (13-14, 15-16 and 17-18 years), spanning three domains of assessment: individual, relational, contextual. Distinct profiles of adolescents were identified using Latent Class Analysis. Class differences on depressive symptoms in emerging adult (19-20 years) were then examined. RESULTS Three multivariate profiles, differentiated by patterns of risk severity, were observed: Adjusted (n = 253), Moderate Risk (n = 156), and High Risk (n = 40). Compared to the Adjusted class, participants in the Moderate Risk, but not High Risk class had notably elevated depressive symptomatology in emerging adulthood (d = 0.35). In contrast, High Risk class membership in adolescence predicted antisocial behavior in emerging adulthood. LIMITATIONS Risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood may be under-estimated due to a disproportionate loss of participants from low socio-economic backgrounds. CONCLUSIONS We found most adolescents from dissolved families to be well-adjusted. Differences between Moderate Risk and High Risk adolescents signal differentiated pathways to subsequent mental health problems. Our findings are relevant for targeted therapeutic strategies for adolescents from dissolved families.

Preconception prediction of expectant fathers' mental health: 20-year cohort study from adolescence

We examined prospective associations between mens common mental disorders in the decades prior to offspring conception and subsequent paternal antenatal mental health problems. Data came from a prospective intergenerational cohort study which assessed common mental disorder nine times from age 14 to 29 years, and in the third trimester of subsequent pregnancies to age 35 years (N = 295 pregnancies to 214 men). Men with histories of adolescent and young adult common mental disorders were over four times more likely to experience antenatal mental health problems. Future research identifying modifiable perinatal factors that counteract preconception risk would provide further targets for intervention. Declaration of interest None.