James A.K. Erskine

I Suppress, Therefore I Smoke Effects of Thought Suppression on Smoking Behavior

Thought suppression is a method frequently employed by individuals who are trying to control their thoughts and behaviors. Although this strategy is known to actually increase unwanted thoughts, it is unclear whether thought suppression also results in behavioral rebound. The study presented in this article investigated the effects of suppressing thoughts of smoking in everyday life on the number of cigarettes subsequently smoked. Study participants recorded their daily cigarette intake and stress levels over a 3-week period. In Week 1 and Week 3, participants monitored intake and stress. During Week 2, in addition to monitoring intake and stress, participants in the experimental groups either suppressed or expressed smoking thoughts, whereas the control group continued monitoring. Our results showed a clear behavioral rebound: The suppression group smoked significantly more in Week 3 than the expression or control group did. Moreover, the tendency to suppress thoughts (measured by the White Bear Suppression Inventory) was positively related to the number of attempts to quit smoking. The implications of our findings for smoking cessation are discussed.

Resistance can be futile: Investigating behavioural rebound

One hundred and thirty-four non-dieting participants spent 5 min thinking aloud under three different conditions. Participants either suppressed or expressed thoughts of eating chocolate, or verbalised with no further instructions. After thinking aloud, all participants took part in a taste preference task where they tried two brands of chocolate and answered questions about their preference. Unbeknownst to participants the variable of interest was the amount of chocolate eaten, not their preference. Results indicated an interaction between condition (suppression vs. expression vs. control) and gender. Both male and female participants showed a behavioural rebound effect, consuming significantly more chocolate after suppression than participants in the verbalise only control group. However, in the expression group, a clear difference between males and females was manifested, while females ate a similar amount of chocolate in the expression and verbalise only control groups, males ate the most chocolate in the expression group and this was significantly greater than the amount eaten after suppression or the verbalise only control group.

Effects of thought suppression on eating behaviour in restrained and non-restrained eaters

Recent research has shown that suppressing food related thoughts can cause a subsequent increase in consumption relative to groups not suppressing, or thinking about food. The present study examined whether the effects of thought suppression on subsequent eating behaviour would interact with participants restrained eating status. One hundred and sixteen female participants were split into three groups. One third suppressed thoughts of chocolate, one third thought about chocolate and the final third thought about anything they wished. Following this, participants took part in a task where they rated two brands of chocolate on several taste characteristics. Participants were unaware that the dependent variable was the amount of chocolate consumed and not taste preference. Participants also completed measures of dietary restraint, craving, guilt and thought suppression. Results indicated that restrained eaters in the suppression condition consumed significantly more chocolate than restrained eaters in the expression or control condition. Participants low on restraint ate statistically equivalent amounts in all three groups. In addition, participants reporting frequent use of thought suppression (assessed by the White Bear Suppression Inventory) reported greater chocolate cravings.

Voluntary involuntariness: thought suppression and the regulation of the experience of will.

Participants were asked to carry out a series of simple tasks while following mental control instructions. In advance of each task, they either suppressed thoughts of their intention to perform the task, concentrated on such thoughts, or monitored their thoughts without trying to change them. Suppression resulted in reduced reports of intentionality as compared to monitoring, and as compared to concentration. There was a weak trend for suppression to enhance reported intentionality for a repetition of the action carried out after suppression instructions had been discontinued.

The effects of age on psychopathology, well-being and repressive coping

The present study was conducted to test the hypothesis that the increased psychological well-being and positivity effect in old age can be related to a high prevalence of repressive coping in healthy older adults. Both older (mean age 73) and younger (mean age 20) adults completed a range of indices measuring psychopathology and repressive coping. Results showed that older adults scored lower than younger adults on almost all indices of psychopathology, and were more likely to be classed as repressive copers than younger adults (41% versus 11%, respectively). Furthermore, when the repressive copers and borderline repressors were removed from both samples, age effects on several, but not all, measures of psychopathology disappeared, indicating that even older non-repressors showed better mental health than young non-repressors. Possible mechanisms of increased positivity, in terms of repressive coping and reductions in intrusive thoughts and rumination in old age, are discussed.

Effects of age on phenomenology and consistency of flashbulb memories of September 11 and a staged control event

In two studies, the special status of flashbulb memories was investigated by contrasting the effects of age on the phenomenology and consistency of flashbulb memories of September 11, over a 2-year delay period, with those of a mundane staged control event: participants learning that they had not won a small prize. Flashbulb memories produced no significant age effects for either phenomenological characteristics or test-retest consistency, as predicted by Mathers (2004) emotional compensation hypothesis. By contrast, the control event resulted in significant age effects for phenomenological characteristics (e.g., specificity and the amount of detail recalled) but not for test-retest consistency. Furthermore, in both age groups, memories of September 11 were significantly more vivid, detailed, and consistent than control memories even though the test-retest interval was twice as long for flashbulb memories. In addition, correlations between consistency scores and ratings of rehearsal were positive for control memories but negative for flashbulb memories. The theoretical implications of these findings for research on cognitive aging and flashbulb memories are discussed.

To suppress, or not to suppress? That is repression: Controlling intrusive thoughts in addictive behaviour

Research to understand how individuals cope with intrusive negative or threatening thoughts suggests a variety of different cognitive strategies aimed at thought control. In this review, two of these strategies--thought suppression and repressive coping--are discussed in the context of addictive behaviour. Thought suppression involves conscious, volitional attempts to expel a thought from awareness, whereas repressive coping, which involves the avoidance of thoughts without the corresponding conscious intention, appears to be a far more automated process. Whilst there has been an emerging body of research exploring the role of thought suppression in addictive behaviour, there remains a dearth of research which has considered the role of repressive coping in the development of, and recovery from, addiction. Based on a review of the literature, and a discussion of the supposed mechanisms which underpin these strategies for exercising mental control, a conceptual model is proposed which posits a potential common mechanism. This model makes a number of predictions which require exploration in future research to fully understand the cognitive strategies utilised by individuals to control intrusive thoughts related to their addictive behaviour.

Effect of suppressing thoughts of desire to smoke on ratings of desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms

Studies indicate that while suppressing smoking thoughts increases subsequent smoking, it may have no impact on desire to smoke. However, previous research has examined suppression of general smoking thoughts rather than thoughts specifically related to desire to smoke. The present study investigated whether suppression of thoughts of desire to smoke results in subsequently elevated ratings of desire to smoke. An experimental study examined the effects of suppressing thoughts of desire to smoke, versus expressing thoughts of desire to smoke, versus a control group thinking about anything, on ratings of desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms at four time points (before manipulations, just after manipulations, 5 min after, 10 min after). In addition, effects of suppressing thoughts of desire to smoke on subsequent reports of thoughts of desire to smoke were examined. Suppressing the thoughts of desire to smoke caused thought rebound (i.e., greater subsequent reports of thoughts of desire to smoke). However, compared with control groups, this suppression did not elevate subsequent ratings of desire to smoke. Suppressing the thoughts of desire to smoke does not elevate subsequent ratings of this desire. Increased cigarette consumption following suppression of smoking thoughts may be mediated by mechanisms other than increased desire to smoke.

A longitudinal investigation of repressive coping and ageing

Objectives: Two studies investigated the possibility that repressive coping is more prevalent in older adults and that this represents a developmental progression rather than a cohort effect. Study 1 examined repressive coping and mental health cross-sectionally in young and old adults. Study 2 examined whether there was a developmental progression of repressive coping prevalence rates in a longitudinal sample of older adults. Method: Study 1 compared younger adults (mean age 27.6 years) with older adults (mean age 74.2 years) on inventories of mental health and well-being and examined the prevalence of repressive coping in both samples. Study 2 re-tested a sample of older adults previously reported following an interval of 7 years. Results and conclusion: Study 1 – in line with previous research older adults demonstrated greater psychological well-being and had a higher prevalence of repressive coping than younger adults (at 30% vs. 12% respectively). Study 2 – the data indicated that the prevalence of repressive coping rose from 41% at the first time of testing (2002) to 56.4% at the second testing interval (2009). These results suggest that repressive coping may increase across the lifespan in certain individuals and continue to increase throughout older adulthood. Furthermore, this increase in repressive coping with age appears to result in better well-being in those older adults who become repressive copers.

Behavioral, Cognitive, and Affective Consequences of Trying to Avoid Chocolate

Chocolate has become almost ubiquitous in its widespread availability. There has been a consistent rise in the average size of chocolate bars. These factors have resulted in increased average consumption and a need to attempt to restrain one’s intake. Two common strategies to avoid consuming too much chocolate are (1) to try not to think about chocolate and (2) to try not to eat chocolate. Studies are now indicating that both trying not to think of chocolate and deliberately restraining oneself from eating it can result in increased rather than reduced subsequent consumption. Although these effects can present in most individuals, they appear to be strongest in restrained eaters or participants with a high propensity towards dieting.