James D. Moran

Fruit Juice Intake Is Not Related to Children's Growth

Background. Excessive fruit juice intake (>12 ounces/day) has been reported to be associated with short stature and obesity in preschool children. Objective. To confirm whether excess fruit juice intake was associated with short stature and obesity in preschool children, we assessed growth parameters and fruit juice intake in 105 white children, ages 24 to 36 months. Methodology. Mothers were interviewed twice by a registered dietitian when children were age 24, 28, or 32 months (interview 1) and when children were age 28, 32, or 36 months (interview 2); interviews were assigned randomly. At each interview mothers provided 3 days of dietary data (one 24-hour recall and a 2-day food record) and the registered dietitian weighed the child and measured his/her height. Dietary data were analyzed using Nutritionist IV software. Each childs body mass index (wt/ht2) and ponderal index (wt/ht3) were calculated for each interview. Growth parameters of children consuming <12 ounces/day 100% fruit juice were compared with those consuming ≥12 ounces/day using the Students t test, χ2, Fishers exact test, and mixed model repeated measures analyses (PROC MIXED). Results. Results consistently indicated no statistically significant differences in childrens height, body mass index, or ponderal index related to fruit juice intake. Intakes of soda pop were negatively related to intakes of milk and fruit juice although intakes of milk and fruit juice were not related. Conclusions. The consistent lack of relationship between childrens fruit juice intake and growth parameters in our study does not support previous recommendations to limit the intake of 100% fruit juice to <12 ounces/day.

Longitudinal Study of Nutrient and Food Intakes of White Preschool Children Aged 24 to 60 Months

OBJECTIVE To determine nutrient and food intakes of 72 white preschool children primarily from families of middle and upper socioeconomic status and to compare childrens nutrient intakes with current recommendations. DESIGN Six in-home interviews were conducted with mothers when children were 24 to 60 months old; at each time mothers provided 3 days of dietary information on the child. Children and mothers independently provided information on the childs favorite and least favorite foods at 42 and 54 months. SUBJECTS Preschool children (24 to 60 months old) participating in a longitudinal study. STATISTICAL ANALYSES Mean nutrient intakes were compared with the most recent Recommended Dietary Allowances/Adequate Intakes. Differences over time were tested with repeated-measures analysis of variance; gender differences were determined with t tests. Food frequencies (i.e., percentage of children consuming specific foods) were determined from dietary recalls and food records. Dietary variety was assessed with the Variety Index for Toddlers or the Variety Index for Children. RESULTS Means were consistently less than the RDA/AI for energy, zinc, folate, and vitamins D and E. Energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes were highest (P < or = .01) at 60 months. Boys consumed more (P < or = .05) protein (10 g), calcium (197 mg), magnesium (35 mg), and pantothenic acid (0.8 mg) at 60 months than did girls. Foods most commonly eaten were fruit drink, carbonated beverages, 2% milk, and french fries. The vegetable group consistently had the lowest variety scores; vegetables also dominated least favorite foods lists. APPLICATIONS Parents need to be encouraged to include more sources of zinc, folate, vitamin E, and vitamin D in childrens diets. Parents should also encourage their children to eat more vegetables, zinc- and folate-fortified cereals, lean red meats, seafood, vegetable oils, and low-fat milk.

Toddlers’ Food Preferences: Concordance with Family Members’ Preferences

Abstract To determine the food preferences of toddlers and the concordance with preferences of their family members, 118 children, ages 28 to 36 months, were assessed with a written questionnaire completed by their mothers. The questionnaire included 196 foods commonly eaten across the U.S. Response categories were [food] never offered, never tasted, [child] likes and eats, dislikes but eats, likes but does not eat, and dislikes and does not eat. Similar questionnaires were completed by mothers (n = 117), fathers (n = 96), and an older sibling (n = 47) of the child. Results indicated strong concordance (82.0–83.3%) of food preferences between the child and other family members. Similarity between foods never offered to the child and the mothers dislikes was significant at p = .005. On the average, children had been offered 77.8% of the 196 foods and liked 81.1% of the foods offered to them. Foods liked and eaten by over 95% of the children included French fries, pizza, potato chips, apple juice, bananas, saltine crackers, spaghetti, biscuits, rolls (white), and popcorn. No single food was disliked and not eaten by a majority of the children. Results suggest that the most limiting category related to food preferences were those foods never offered to the child.

Preschoolers’ Food Product Choices at a Simulated Point of Purchase and Mothers’ Consumer Practices

Abstract The objective of this study was to determine the positive attributes of familiar food products as reported by preschool children and to assess their mothers’ consumer practices. At two in-home interviews, children (n = 34, ages 60 and 69 months) were asked to select one food from nine pairs of familiar foods (cereals, beverages, yogurt, and gummy candies). Concurrently but separately, their mothers (n = 34) completed a consumer questionnaire. Childrens cognitive development levels were assessed. Statistical Analysis System (SAS) was used to compute descriptive statistics and quantitative analyses for categorizing childrens reasons for food choices in a simulated point of purchase decision. Most children selected one of the paired foods based on a single attribute (e.g., character/action figure or type of product). At 69 months, single attributes reported earlier changed (e.g., characters to taste). Findings indicate that most children were in the preoperational stage of development. They did not select foods using several attributes, which would indicate a higher level of cognition. For mothers, economic factors had the most influence on their consumer practices. Preschool childrens food selections were influenced by a single attribute of the product/packaging at 60 and 69 months of age. Parents need information about preschoolers’ single attribute selection process and to use that process to teach better food selection.

Sex differences in the original thinking of preschool and elementary school children

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess the development of sex differences in the creative potential of preschool and early elementary school children. Preschool, first‐, and third‐grade children (N = 188) received the Multidimensional Stimulus Fluency Measure (MSFM). The MSFM assesses creative potential in terms of popular and original responses (ideational fluency). Comparisons of the three groups of children indicated that sex differences emerged throughout early elementary school. No sex differences were found within the preschool sample; but by third‐grade, boys were found to score significantly higher than girls on both popular and original responses. These findings were discussed with regard to evaluation, conformity, assimilative strategies, and the environmental factors which might affect creative potential.

Predicting Imaginative Play in Preschool Children

as original problem solving with ideational fluency as an essential component (Guilford, 1956, 1967; Mednick, 1962; Wallach & Kogan, 1965). These investigators and others (Getzels and Jackson, 1962; Torrance, 1974) developed measures of original problem-solving based on ideational fluency. These measures are frequently used in research designed to validate the aforementioned formulations of creativity (Milgram, Milgram, Rosenbloom, & Rabkin, 1978; Ward, 1968, 1969). In these tests the verbal and visual stimuli are considered the problems and the subjects’verbal responses the solutions. Considerable evidence for the

Stimulus Specificity in the Measurement of Original Thinking in Preschool Children

Summary A patterns task consisting of six stimuli, three presented in two-dimensional form and three presented in three-dimensional form were administered to 47 preschool children. The three-dimensional patterns task generated a greater number of responses than the two-dimensional task. Moreover, the two-dimensional task was related to intelligence whereas the three-dimensional task was not. In the second phase of the study the greater fluency elicited by the three-dimensional pattern task was found to be a function of the added dimension and not of the specific stimuli used. The implications of the findings for Mednicks response hierarchy formulation and the creativity-intelligence distinction are discussed. The findings demonstrate the importance of developing measures of original thinking which are specifically appropriate for use with preschool children.

Addition of Supplementary Foods and Infant Growth (2 to 24 Months)

Objective: To determine the effect of adding supplementary foods on infant growth 2 to 8 and 12 to 24 months. Methods: Length (cm/month) and weight (kg/month) of white infants (n = 94) were measured five to nine times from 2 to 24 months of age. Mothers reported birth weights, infants’ ages at first introduction of supplementary food, illnesses and information sources about infant feeding. Simple linear regression equations were used to compute slopes for each child (unit changes in length and in weight by age). Stepwise linear regression was used to determine the effect on weight and length slopes by the introduction of supplementary foods (e.g., an infant’s age when cereal, fruit, juice, vegetables and a meat cluster were first added) to the diet. Breast feeding (months duration or ever fed), illness scores and gender were covariates in the regression models. Results: A significant model (F = 10.09, p = .002) for weight gain (2 to 8 months) showed that gender explained 10% of the variance; for length slope, the model was non-significant and gender explained 3% of the variance. Females had a slower weight gain compared to that of males. None of the covariates or supplementary foods were retained in the models. Weight prior to 12 months was the best predictor (p = .0001, 54% of the variance) of weight gain 12 to 24 months. Conclusions: Unit changes in weight or length for an infant’s age were not statistically associated with the timing of when supplementary foods were first added to the diet 2 to 8 or 12 to 24 months. Weight prior to 12 months was a significant predictor of weight gain 12 to 24 months.

Mealtime Communication Patterns of Infants from 2 to 24 Months of Age

Abstract The purposes of this study were to document mealtime communication behaviors used by 98 Caucasian infants who were studied longitudinally from 2 to 24 months of age and to describe how these behaviors changed in the group over time. Using both closed- and open-ended questions in personal interviews, these middle and upper socioeconomic status mothers reported how their infants communicated hunger, satiety, and food likes and dislikes. Mothers also reported their own response behaviors when they believed that their infants had not eaten enough. Only a few mealtime communication behaviors were common to all infants, suggesting that infants use various behaviors to communicate similar messages. Food likes were most often communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, such as opening the mouth as food approached, eating readily, or eating a large amount of food. Food dislikes were communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, by facial expressions, and by body movements, such as turning the head or body away from food or throwing disliked food. When the mother perceived that the child had not eaten enough, most mothers offered alternative choices, either at mealtime or shortly thereafter.The results indicate that most infants are communicating via behaviors in feeding situations throughout the 2- to 24-month period.

Family adaptability, cohesion, and creativity

With the awareness of the role stress plays in our lives, it is vital to gain a better insight into the family and assess its adaptability and cohesion. This study was conducted to examine the association between perceived family adaptability and cohesion levels and creativity. Eighty college students from interior design and hotel and restaurant administration classes received the How Do You Think Instrument and the Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scales. Results indicated that the highest creativity scores characterized highly adaptable families. The lowest creativity scores were characteristic of rigid families (low adaptability). Adaptability within the family was a significant contributor in predicting creativity scores, but family cohesion was not.