Kelly S. Houck

Fruit Juice Intake Is Not Related to Children's Growth

Background. Excessive fruit juice intake (>12 ounces/day) has been reported to be associated with short stature and obesity in preschool children. Objective. To confirm whether excess fruit juice intake was associated with short stature and obesity in preschool children, we assessed growth parameters and fruit juice intake in 105 white children, ages 24 to 36 months. Methodology. Mothers were interviewed twice by a registered dietitian when children were age 24, 28, or 32 months (interview 1) and when children were age 28, 32, or 36 months (interview 2); interviews were assigned randomly. At each interview mothers provided 3 days of dietary data (one 24-hour recall and a 2-day food record) and the registered dietitian weighed the child and measured his/her height. Dietary data were analyzed using Nutritionist IV software. Each childs body mass index (wt/ht2) and ponderal index (wt/ht3) were calculated for each interview. Growth parameters of children consuming <12 ounces/day 100% fruit juice were compared with those consuming ≥12 ounces/day using the Students t test, χ2, Fishers exact test, and mixed model repeated measures analyses (PROC MIXED). Results. Results consistently indicated no statistically significant differences in childrens height, body mass index, or ponderal index related to fruit juice intake. Intakes of soda pop were negatively related to intakes of milk and fruit juice although intakes of milk and fruit juice were not related. Conclusions. The consistent lack of relationship between childrens fruit juice intake and growth parameters in our study does not support previous recommendations to limit the intake of 100% fruit juice to <12 ounces/day.

Longitudinal Study of Nutrient and Food Intakes of White Preschool Children Aged 24 to 60 Months

OBJECTIVE To determine nutrient and food intakes of 72 white preschool children primarily from families of middle and upper socioeconomic status and to compare childrens nutrient intakes with current recommendations. DESIGN Six in-home interviews were conducted with mothers when children were 24 to 60 months old; at each time mothers provided 3 days of dietary information on the child. Children and mothers independently provided information on the childs favorite and least favorite foods at 42 and 54 months. SUBJECTS Preschool children (24 to 60 months old) participating in a longitudinal study. STATISTICAL ANALYSES Mean nutrient intakes were compared with the most recent Recommended Dietary Allowances/Adequate Intakes. Differences over time were tested with repeated-measures analysis of variance; gender differences were determined with t tests. Food frequencies (i.e., percentage of children consuming specific foods) were determined from dietary recalls and food records. Dietary variety was assessed with the Variety Index for Toddlers or the Variety Index for Children. RESULTS Means were consistently less than the RDA/AI for energy, zinc, folate, and vitamins D and E. Energy, carbohydrate, and fat intakes were highest (P < or = .01) at 60 months. Boys consumed more (P < or = .05) protein (10 g), calcium (197 mg), magnesium (35 mg), and pantothenic acid (0.8 mg) at 60 months than did girls. Foods most commonly eaten were fruit drink, carbonated beverages, 2% milk, and french fries. The vegetable group consistently had the lowest variety scores; vegetables also dominated least favorite foods lists. APPLICATIONS Parents need to be encouraged to include more sources of zinc, folate, vitamin E, and vitamin D in childrens diets. Parents should also encourage their children to eat more vegetables, zinc- and folate-fortified cereals, lean red meats, seafood, vegetable oils, and low-fat milk.

Toddlers’ Food Preferences: Concordance with Family Members’ Preferences

Abstract To determine the food preferences of toddlers and the concordance with preferences of their family members, 118 children, ages 28 to 36 months, were assessed with a written questionnaire completed by their mothers. The questionnaire included 196 foods commonly eaten across the U.S. Response categories were [food] never offered, never tasted, [child] likes and eats, dislikes but eats, likes but does not eat, and dislikes and does not eat. Similar questionnaires were completed by mothers (n = 117), fathers (n = 96), and an older sibling (n = 47) of the child. Results indicated strong concordance (82.0–83.3%) of food preferences between the child and other family members. Similarity between foods never offered to the child and the mothers dislikes was significant at p = .005. On the average, children had been offered 77.8% of the 196 foods and liked 81.1% of the foods offered to them. Foods liked and eaten by over 95% of the children included French fries, pizza, potato chips, apple juice, bananas, saltine crackers, spaghetti, biscuits, rolls (white), and popcorn. No single food was disliked and not eaten by a majority of the children. Results suggest that the most limiting category related to food preferences were those foods never offered to the child.

The role of multivalency in antibody mediated liposome targeting

We have investigated the role of multivalency in immunoliposome binding to cells displaying different amounts of surface antigen using liposomes with increasing numbers of palmitoyl anti-H2Kk antibodies incorporated into the bilayer. RDM-4 lymphoma cells were treated with proteinase k to generate a series of cells with various amounts of H2Kk antigen. Percent binding of immunoliposomes was related to the number of antigens displayed by the RDM-4 cell. Increasing liposome binding was observed with increasing number of antibody molecules per liposome. However, the ratio of binding of the high-antigen-density cells to that of the low-antigen-density cells was higher with immunoliposomes of lower antibody density than the ones with higher antibody density. This result suggests that for better discrimination between cells differing in antigen density, liposomes with lower numbers of antibody molecules per liposome may be more useful as a discriminatory tool for cells with a low level antigen expression than liposomes with greater antibody densities.

Addition of Supplementary Foods and Infant Growth (2 to 24 Months)

Objective: To determine the effect of adding supplementary foods on infant growth 2 to 8 and 12 to 24 months. Methods: Length (cm/month) and weight (kg/month) of white infants (n = 94) were measured five to nine times from 2 to 24 months of age. Mothers reported birth weights, infants’ ages at first introduction of supplementary food, illnesses and information sources about infant feeding. Simple linear regression equations were used to compute slopes for each child (unit changes in length and in weight by age). Stepwise linear regression was used to determine the effect on weight and length slopes by the introduction of supplementary foods (e.g., an infant’s age when cereal, fruit, juice, vegetables and a meat cluster were first added) to the diet. Breast feeding (months duration or ever fed), illness scores and gender were covariates in the regression models. Results: A significant model (F = 10.09, p = .002) for weight gain (2 to 8 months) showed that gender explained 10% of the variance; for length slope, the model was non-significant and gender explained 3% of the variance. Females had a slower weight gain compared to that of males. None of the covariates or supplementary foods were retained in the models. Weight prior to 12 months was the best predictor (p = .0001, 54% of the variance) of weight gain 12 to 24 months. Conclusions: Unit changes in weight or length for an infant’s age were not statistically associated with the timing of when supplementary foods were first added to the diet 2 to 8 or 12 to 24 months. Weight prior to 12 months was a significant predictor of weight gain 12 to 24 months.

Mealtime Communication Patterns of Infants from 2 to 24 Months of Age

Abstract The purposes of this study were to document mealtime communication behaviors used by 98 Caucasian infants who were studied longitudinally from 2 to 24 months of age and to describe how these behaviors changed in the group over time. Using both closed- and open-ended questions in personal interviews, these middle and upper socioeconomic status mothers reported how their infants communicated hunger, satiety, and food likes and dislikes. Mothers also reported their own response behaviors when they believed that their infants had not eaten enough. Only a few mealtime communication behaviors were common to all infants, suggesting that infants use various behaviors to communicate similar messages. Food likes were most often communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, such as opening the mouth as food approached, eating readily, or eating a large amount of food. Food dislikes were communicated by mouth/eating behaviors, by facial expressions, and by body movements, such as turning the head or body away from food or throwing disliked food. When the mother perceived that the child had not eaten enough, most mothers offered alternative choices, either at mealtime or shortly thereafter.The results indicate that most infants are communicating via behaviors in feeding situations throughout the 2- to 24-month period.

Impact of Physicians on Infant Feeding Patterns

Abstract LEARNING OUTCOME: To identify information sources influencing infant feeding patterns in middle-to-upper socioeconomic status Anglo-American mothers. Ninety-eight middle-to-upper socioeconomic status Anglo-American mothers completed ≤ 5 interviews in the first year post-partum to determine sources of information on feeding practices. Interviews were conducted in the subjects home one to four months apart. Forty-seven percent cited the physician as the most important source of information on their initial interview, 5% cited the nurse, and 14% relied on their own experience. Twenty-six percent of the subjects cited the physician as the major source of feeding information at every interview. Subjects who never breast fed were more likely to cite the physician as the most important source of information in the initial interview, and were more likely to add weening foods to the childs diet prior to the initial interview. The mothers increased reliance on their own experience in the second half of the first year post-partum. Use of magazines and books for feeding information remained high throughout the first year. This study indicates that the role of the physician in infant feeding decisions is substantial among middle-to-upper socioeconomic status Anglo-American women, but that these women are also making independent decisions on feeding using their own experience as well as secondary sources of information, especially literary sources.

A Variety index for Toddlers

Abstract LEARNING OUTCOME: To describe the development and validation of a dietary Variety Index for Toddlers (VTT) Variety in the diet is consistently emphasized in the Dietary Guidelines, but it has not been clearly defined. The pmpose of this study was to use the Food Guide Pyramid to develop a Variety Index for Toddler; (VTT) that also reflects dietary adequacy. Two days of food records and one 24-hour recall were collected from mothers. Subjects (n=124) were randomly assigned interviews at two of four possible collection periods: 24, 28,32, or 36 months. VTT scores were determined using the Food Guide Pyramid and serving sizes adapted for 2-year-olds. Foods consumed in amounts less than one half serving, and foods with little nutritional value (eg. candy) were excluded from the VTT. Index scores for the five food groups were averaged to give a VTT score for each subject, with a maximum score of 1.00. Mean VTT scores at 24, 28,32, and 36 months were 0.81 + 0.15,0.79 ± 0.14,0.81 + 0.13, and 0.80 + 0.14, respectively. Scores for each food group were truncated at the recommended number of servings for that group, preventing high intakes of one food group compensating for low intakes in others. A single food could not comprise more man 33% of the total for a food group. Variety over time for the bread group was consistendy the highest (0.94-0.96); while vegetable and meat groups were consistently low (0.68-0.73 and 0.73-0.76, respectively). The fiuit group had the widest range over four collection periods (0.71-0.84). Nutrient analysis of food data was performed using Nutritionist IV. Mean caloric intake ranged from 1412 at 24 months to 1504 at 36 months Percentage of the RDA was calculated for 12 nutrients, and the Mean Adequacy Ratio Score (MARS) was determined using methodology described by Guthrie and Scheer. The correlation between MARS and VTT scores was + 0.49 (p