James E. Freeman

Screening for Drugs in Oral Fluid: Illicit Drug Use and Drug Driving in a Sample of Queensland Motorists

Police Services in a number of Australian states have indicated random roadside drug testing will be implemented to target drug driving. This paper outlines research conducted to provide an estimate of the prevalence of drug driving in a sample of Queensland drivers. Oral fluid samples were collected from 781 drivers who volunteered to participate at Random Breath Testing (RBT) sites in a large Queensland regional area. Illicit substances tested for included cannabis (delta 9 tetrahydrocannibinol [THC]), amphetamine type substances, heroin and cocaine. Drivers also completed a self-report questionnaire regarding their drug-related driving behaviour. Samples that were drug-positive at initial screening were sent to a government laboratory for confirmation. Oral fluid samples from 27 participants (3.5%) were confirmed positive for at least one illicit substance. The most common drugs detected in oral fluid were cannabis (delta 9 THC) (n = 13) followed by amphetamine type substances (n = 11). A key finding was that cannabis was also confirmed as the most common self-reported drug combined with driving and that individuals who tested positive to any drug through oral fluid analysis were also more likely to report the highest frequency of drug driving. Furthermore, a comparison between drug vs drink driving detection rates for the study period revealed a higher detection rate for drug driving (3.5%) vs drink driving (0.8%). This research provides evidence that drug driving is relatively prevalent on Queensland Roads. The paper will further outline the study findings and present possible directions for future drug driving research.

Unraveling the complexity of driving while intoxicated: A study into the prevalence of psychiatric and substance abuse comorbidity

OBJECTIVE Research is beginning to provide an indication of the co-occurring substance abuse and mental health needs for the driving under the influence (DUI) population. This study aimed to examine the extent of such psychiatric problems among a large sample size of DUI offenders entering treatment in Texas. METHODS This is a study of 36,373 past year DUI clients and 308,714 non-past year DUI clients admitted to Texas treatment programs between 2005 and 2008. Data were obtained from the States administrative dataset. RESULTS Analysis indicated that non-past year DUI clients were more likely to present with more severe illicit substance use problems, while past year DUI clients were more likely to have a primary problem with alcohol. Nevertheless, a cannabis use problem was also found to be significantly associated with DUI recidivism in the last year. In regards to mental health status, a major finding was that depression was the most common psychiatric condition reported by DUI clients, including those with more than one DUI offence in the past year. This cohort also reported elevated levels of Bipolar Disorder compared to the general population, and such a diagnosis was also associated with an increased likelihood of not completing treatment. Additionally, female clients were more likely to be diagnosed with mental health problems than males, as well as more likely to be placed on medications at admission and more likely to have problems with methamphetamine, cocaine, and opiates. CONCLUSIONS DUI offenders are at an increased risk of experiencing comorbid psychiatric disorders, and thus, corresponding treatment programs need to cater for a range of mental health concerns that are likely to affect recidivism rates.

Fatigue and Beyond: Patterns of and Motivations for Illicit Drug Use Among Long-Haul Truck Drivers

Objectives. The present study aimed to investigate the illicit drug use patterns of long-distance truck drivers. This population is considered to be a special interest group in terms of drug-driving research and policy due to high rates of use, involvement of drugs in truck accidents, and the link between drug use and work-related fatigue. Methods. Qualitative interview data were collected from 35 long-haul truck drivers in Southeast Queensland and analyzed through grounded theory techniques. Interviews were conducted at truck stops and loading facilities in both metropolitan and regional cites throughout Queensland. Results. High rates of licit and illicit drug use (particularly amphetamines) were reported by the majority of the sample. However, unlike previous studies that focus on fatigue, this research found overlapping and changing motivations for drug use during individual lifetimes. Beckers model of a drug use “career” was utilized to reveal that some drivers begin illicit drug use before they commence truck driving. As well as fatigue, powerful motives such as peer pressure, wanting to fit the trucking “image,” socialization, relaxation, and addiction were also reported as contributing factors to self-reported drug driving. Conclusions. The results indicate that these additional social factors may need to be considered and incorporated with fatigue factors when developing effective drug prevention or cessation policies for truck drivers.

Gender Differences in DUI Offenders in Treatment in Texas

Objective. This is a study of 8,464 adult women and 21,155 adult males who entered substance abuse treatment in Texas between 2000 and 2005. Participants were either on probation for driving under the influence (DUI), were referred to treatment by DUI probation, or had been arrested for DUI in the past year. Methods. The female and male clients were compared on demographic characteristics, substance use patterns, DSM-IV diagnoses, and levels of impairment. T tests and chi square tests were used to determine significance and multivariate logistic regression identified predictors of completing treatment and being abstinent at follow-up. Results. The proportion of females who were sent to treatment as a result of DUI increased from 27% in 2000 to 32% in 2005. Females were significantly more likely than males to be White (73% vs. 56%), to have used substances a shorter period of time (17 vs. 19 years), to be seeking custody to regain their children (11% vs. 2%), to meet the DSM criteria for drug dependence (32% vs. 23%), to have injected drugs (31% vs. 23%), to have used substances daily (42% vs. 40%), to have a depressive disorder (16% vs. 7%) or bipolar disorder (12% vs. 5%), and to be have been in treatment before (60% vs. 49%). In contrast, males were more likely to be alcohol dependent (49% vs. 44%). Females were less likely to complete treatment (67% vs. 72%) and reported significantly more days of problems on the 6 domains of the ASI at both admission and at 60-day follow-up. Furthermore, at follow-up, they were more likely to be living with someone who abused alcohol or used drugs (9% vs.7%). Conclusions. Although females comprised only 29% of the DUI treatment admissions, they were more impaired and experienced more problems than their male counterparts. The findings indicate that additional resources, including treatment for co-occurring mental health problems and living in sober households, may be keys to helping these women achieve abstinence and prevent additional DUI episodes.

Policing alcohol‐related incidents: a study of time and prevalence

Objective: To examine the prevalence of alcohol-related incidents attended by operational police within three of the largest cities of Queensland e.g., Brisbane, Gold Coast and Townsville (N = 7398). There have been only a relatively small proportion of Australian studies that have examined the prevalence and characteristics of alcohol-related incidents requiring police attention and most are based on small sample sizes that are representative of specific populations. Method: Participants in the current study were first response operational police officers who completed a modified activity log over a 5 week period, identifying the type, prevalence and characteristics of alcohol-related incidents that were attended (N = 31090). Results: Overall, approximately one in four incidents attended by police during the study period, involved alcohol while only 3% were drug related. The most common incidents police attended were vehicle and/or traffic matters, disturbances and offences against property. A closer examination revealed that disturbances and vehicle/traffic type incidents were almost twice as likely to be alcohol-related as compared to the overall percentage of incidents. Similar findings were evident between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas which highlights the consistent impact of alcohol on police resources. Offenders were more likely to be young males, while victims consisted of a relatively even number of males and females. Conclusions: The findings highlight the pervasive nature of alcohol across a range of criminal incidents, demonstrating the tremendous impact alcohol-related incidents have on police resources and can potentially contribute to the development of more effective, problem-oriented strategies to address alcohol-related crime.

Risky driving behavior among university students and staff in the Sultanate of Oman

BACKGROUND There is a well developed literature on research investigating the relationship between various driving behaviors and road crash involvement. However, this research has predominantly been conducted in developed economies dominated by western types of cultural environments. To date no research has been published that has empirically investigated this relationship within the context of the emerging economies such as Oman. OBJECTIVE The present study aims to investigate driving behavior as indexed in the driving behavior questionnaire (DBQ) among a group of Omani university students and staff. METHODS A convenience non-probability self-selection sampling approach was utilized with Omani university students and staff. RESULTS A total of 1003 Omani students (n=632) and staff (n=371) participated in the survey. Factor analysis of the BDQ revealed four main factors that were errors, speeding violation, lapses and aggressive violation. In the multivariate logistic backward regression analysis, the following factors were identified as significant predictors of being involved in causing at least one crash: driving experience, history of offenses and two DBQ components, i.e., errors and aggressive violation. CONCLUSION This study indicates that errors and aggressive violation of the traffic regulations as well as history of having traffic offenses are major risk factors for road traffic crashes among the sample. While previous international research has demonstrated that speeding is a primary cause of crashing, in the current context, the results indicate that an array of factors is associated with crashes. Further research using more rigorous methodology is warranted to inform the development of road safety countermeasures in Oman that improves overall Traffic Safety Culture.

Applying Stafford and Warr's reconceptualization of deterrence theory to drug driving: Can it predict those likely to offend?

In December 2007, random roadside drug testing commenced in Queensland, Australia. Subsequently, the aim of this study was to explore the preliminary impact of Queenslands drug driving legislation and enforcement techniques by applying Stafford and Warrs [Stafford, M.C., Warr, M., 1993. A reconceptualization of general and specific deterrence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 123-135] reconceptualization of deterrence theory. Completing a comprehensive drug driving questionnaire were 899 members of the public, university students, and individuals referred to a drug diversion program. Of note was that approximately a fifth of participants reported drug driving in the past six months. Additionally, the analysis indicated that punishment avoidance and vicarious punishment avoidance were predictors of the propensity to drug drive in the future. In contrast, there were indications that knowing of others apprehended for drug driving was not a sufficient deterrent. Sustained testing and publicity of the legislation and countermeasure appears needed to increase the deterrent impact for drug driving.

Screening for Drugs in Oral Fluid: Drug Driving and Illicit Drug Use in a Sample of Queensland Motorists

Objective: Random roadside oral fluid testing is becoming increasingly popular as an apprehension and deterrence-based countermeasure to reduce drug driving. This article outlines research conducted to provide an estimate of the extent of drug driving in a sample of drivers in Brisbane, Queensland. Methods: Oral fluid samples were collected from 1587 drivers who volunteered to participate at random breath testing (RBT) sites. Illicit substances tested for included cannabis (delta 9 tetrahydrocannibinol [THC]), meth/amphetamines, and cocaine. Drivers also completed a self-report questionnaire regarding their drug-related driving behaviors. Results: Oral fluid samples from 58 participants (3.7%) were confirmed positive for at least one illicit substance. The most common drugs detected in oral fluid were ecstasy (n = 35) followed by cannabis (n = 20). Similarly, cannabis was confirmed as the most common self-reported drug combined with driving. Nevertheless, individuals who tested positive to any drug through oral fluid analysis were also more likely to report the highest frequency of drug driving. Conclusions: This research provides evidence that drug driving is relatively prevalent on some Queensland roads, and thus the behavior presents as a serious road safety threat. This article will further outline the study findings and present possible directions for future drug driving research.

The impact of a lockout policy on levels of alcohol‐related incidents in and around licensed premises

This paper reports on the impact of a lockout policy on levels of alcohol‐related offences in and around licensed premises. The lockout policy prevents patrons from entering or re‐entering late night trading licensed premises for a specific period prior to closure. A modified police activity log was utilised by all first response operational police to record their attendance at incidents in and around licensed premises. Chi‐square analyses of the prevalence of incidents before and after implementation of the lockout policy demonstrated that the number of alcohol‐related offences requiring police attention was significantly proportionally lower following the liquor trading changes. Alcohol‐related offences, particularly those related to disturbances and sexual offences were significantly reduced following the introduction of the lockout policy. However, while offences related to property, stealing, and assault experienced a reduced trend, these did not reach significance. In contrast, traffic offence rates were unchanged. The findings of the study provide supportive evidence that lockout initiatives have potential as a major crime prevention technique to reduce specific types of alcohol‐related offences.

Deterrence, Defiance and Deviance: An Investigation Into a Group of Recidivist Drink Drivers' Self-Reported Offending Behaviours

Abstract This article reports on the utilisation of aspects of defiance, deviance and deterrence theories to examine the self-reported offending behaviours and punishment experiences for a group of recidivist drink drivers (N = 166). The analysis indicated that the sample perceived their penalties as severe yet fair, but not entirely certain nor swift. Participants also reported they were treated fairly in court and received reasonable punishments compared to others, but a considerable proportion reported low levels of respect for the law and questioned the governments legitimacy to control drink driving. Multivariate analysis revealed that factors from all three models were identified as predictors of reoffending (e.g., severity, government legitimacy and respect for the law), as well as for the frequency of drink driving in the past (e.g., certainty and severity of punishment, personal shame and respect for the law). The findings indicate that aspects of all three models are applicable to the examination of habitual reoffending, but a number of factors appear associated with a drink driving offence.