Kerry Armstrong

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ANXIETY: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SYMPTOMS, COGNITIONS, AND SENSITIVITY TOWARDS ANXIETY IN A NONCLINICAL POPULATION

The current investigation sought to determine whether any observable gender differences existed in the expression of symptoms, cognitions, and sensitivity towards anxiety for a nonclinical sample of 50 males and 50 females, matched for age and social desirability response bias. To investigate this, a between groups study was employed which compared the male and female groups on the Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck & Steer, 1993); Catastrophic Cognitions Questionnaire –Modified (Khawaja, Oei & Banglioni, 1994); Anxiety Sensitivity Index (Reiss, Peterson, Gurskey & McNally, 1986); and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960). Multivariate analyses of variance revealed that females reported higher concern than males regarding the cognitive misinterpretation of the symptoms and beliefs of anxiety. In the context of these results, it would appear that cognitive factors play the most important role towards our understanding of gender differences in anxiety within the nonclinical population. The strengths, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.

Results of the Queensland 2007–2012 roadside drug testing program: The prevalence of three illicit drugs

The purpose of this investigation is to present an overview of roadside drug driving enforcement and detections in Queensland, Australia since the introduction of oral fluid screening. Drug driving is a problematic issue for road safety and investigations of the prevalence and impact of drug driving suggest that, in particular, the use of illicit drugs may increase a drivers involvement in a road crash when compared to a driver who is drug free. In response to the potential increased crash involvement of drug impaired drivers, Australian police agencies have adopted the use of oral fluid analysis to detect the presence of illicit drugs in drivers. This paper describes the results of roadside drug testing for over 80,000 drivers in Queensland, Australia, from December 2007 to June 2012. It provides unique data on the prevalence of methamphetamine, cannabis and ecstasy in the screened population for the period. When prevalence rates are examined over time, drug driving detection rates have almost doubled from around 2.0% at the introduction of roadside testing operations to just under 4.0% in the latter years. The most common drug type detected was methamphetamine (40.8%) followed by cannabis (29.8%) and methamphetamine/cannabis combination (22.5%). By comparison, the rate of ecstasy detection was very low (1.7%). The data revealed a number of regional, age and gender patterns and variations of drug driving across the state. Younger drivers were more likely to test positive for cannabis whilst older drivers were more likely to test positive for methamphetamine. The overall characteristics of drivers who tested positive to the presence of at least one of the target illicit drugs are they are likely to be male, aged 30-39 years, be driving a car on Friday, Saturday or Sunday between 6:00 pm and 6:00 am and to test positive for methamphetamine.

Longitudinal Change in Sleep and Daytime Sleepiness in Postpartum Women

Sleep disruption strongly influences daytime functioning; resultant sleepiness is recognised as a contributing risk-factor for individuals performing critical and dangerous tasks. While the relationship between sleep and sleepiness has been heavily investigated in the vulnerable sub-populations of shift workers and patients with sleep disorders, postpartum women have been comparatively overlooked. Thirty-three healthy, postpartum women recorded every episode of sleep and wake each day during postpartum weeks 6, 12 and 18. Although repeated measures analysis revealed there was no significant difference in the amount of nocturnal sleep and frequency of night-time wakings, there was a significant reduction in sleep disruption, due to fewer minutes of wake after sleep onset. Subjective sleepiness was measured each day using the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale; at the two earlier time points this was significantly correlated with sleep quality but not to sleep quantity. Epworth Sleepiness Scores significantly reduced over time; however, during week 18 over 50% of participants were still experiencing excessive daytime sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Score ≥12). Results have implications for health care providers and policy makers. Health care providers designing interventions to address sleepiness in new mothers should take into account the dynamic changes to sleep and sleepiness during this initial postpartum period. Policy makers developing regulations for parental leave entitlements should take into consideration the high prevalence of excessive daytime sleepiness experienced by new mothers, ensuring enough opportunity for daytime sleepiness to diminish to a manageable level prior to reengagement in the workforce.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Psychometric Properties of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index - Revised in Clinical and Normative Populations

The present investigation aimed to critically examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index – Revised (ASI-R). Confirmatory factor analysis using a clinical sample of adults (N = 248) revealed that the ASI-R could be improved substantially through the removal of 15 problematic items in order to account for the most robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. This modified scale was re-named the 21-item Anxiety Sensitivity Index (21-item ASI) and re-analysed with a large sample of normative adults (N = 435), revealing configural and metric invariance across groups. Further, comparisons with other alternative models indicated the 21-item ASI to be the best fitting model for both groups. There was also evidence of internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity for both samples suggesting that the 21-item ASI is a useful assessment device for investigating the construct of anxiety sensitivity in both clinical and normative populations.

A qualitative exploration of young women's drinking experiences and associated protective behaviours

While initial research supports the effectiveness of protective strategies in mitigating young peoples alcohol-related harm, few studies have investigated these behaviours from a uniquely female perspective. Yet, young women consume alcohol within a social context that is distinctly different from that of young men and face risks that are specific to their gender. To explore a group of young Australian womens experiences, perceptions of risks and use of protective strategies in relation to drinking in public places, we conducted either focus groups or one-on-one telephone interviews with a total of 40 women aged 18–24 years. While young women reported substantial risks associated with drinking, they also reported using a range of protective behaviours that moderated the adverse effects of alcohol, with most of these strategies being derived from the friendship group to which the women belonged. Our findings add to the limited body of knowledge on womens insights into, and their use of protective strategies to minimise the negative consequences of alcohol.

Prevalence of depressive symptoms as elicited by Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) among medical trainees in Oman

BACKGROUND Despite the increasing recognition that medical training tends to coincide with markedly high levels of stress and distress, there is a dearth of validated measures that are capable of gauging the prevalence of depressive symptoms among medical residents in the Arab/Islamic part of the world. OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study is two-fold. First is to examine the diagnostic validity of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) using an Omani medical resident population in order to establish a cut-off point. Second is to compare gender, age, and residency level among Omani Medical residents who report current depressive symptomatology versus those who report as non-depressed according to PHQ-9 cut-off threshold. RESULTS A total of 132 residents (42 males and 90 females) consented to participate in this study. The cut-off score of 12 on the PHQ-9 revealed a sensitivity of 80.6% and a specificity of 94.0%. The rate of depression, as elicited by PHQ-9, was 11.4%. The role of gender, age, and residency level was not significant in endorsing depression. CONCLUSION This study indicated that PHQ-9 is a reliable measure among this cross-cultural population. More studies employing robust methodology are needed to confirm this finding.

The nature and correlates of young women's peer-directed protective behavioral strategies☆

OBJECTIVE Recently, a number of studies have identified self-employed Protective Behavioral Strategies (PBS) as effective in decreasing the level of alcohol-related harm among young people. However, much of the published research has ignored important gender differences, such as womens increased tendency to rely on PBS that are social in nature. To further the understanding of womens PBS, the current study sought to investigate the nature and correlates of the strategies young women employ to keep their friends safe when drinking (i.e., peer-directed PBS). METHOD A scale measuring peer-directed PBS was developed and administered in conjunction with existing measures of alcohol consumption, personal PBS, and peer attachment. Participants consisted of 422 women aged 18-30 years, recruited among psychology students and the general public. RESULTS Exploratory factor analysis revealed two clusters of peer-directed PBS; those that were aimed at reducing intoxication among ones friends and those that were designed to minimize alcohol-related harms. Further analysis found a positive relationship between womens tendency to implement personal and peer-directed PBS and that risky drinkers were less likely to engage in personal or peer-directed PBS (either type). CONCLUSION Findings indicate that personal and peer-directed PBS are related behaviors that are less frequently adopted by risky drinkers.

Prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers in Oman, 2009–2011

ABSTRACT Objectives: Studies from different parts of the world have indicated that the impact of road traffic incidents disproportionally affects young adults. Few known studies have been forthcoming from Arabian Gulf countries. Within Oman, a high proportion of the population is under the age of 20. Coupled with the drastic increase in motorization in recent years, there is a need to understand the state of road safety among young people in Oman. The current research aimed to explore the prevalence and characteristics of road traffic injuries among young drivers aged 17–25 years. Methods: Crash data from 2009 to 2011 were extracted from the Directorate General of Traffic, Royal Oman Police (ROP) database in Oman. The data were analyzed to explore the impact of road crashes on young people (17–25 years), the characteristics of young driver crashes, and how these differ from older drivers and to identify key predictors of fatalities in young driver crashes. Results: Overall, young people were overrepresented in injuries and fatalities within the sample time period. Though it is true that many young people in crashes were driving at the time, it was also evident that young people were often victims in a crash caused by someone else. Thus, to reduce the impact of road crashes on young people, there is a need to generally address road safety within Oman. When young drivers were involved in crashes they were predominantly male. The types of crashes these drivers have can be broadly attributed to risk taking and inexperience. Speeding and nighttime driving were the key risk factors for fatalities. Conclusion: The results highlight the need to address young driver safety in Oman. From these findings, the introduction of a graduated driver licensing system with nighttime driving restrictions could significantly improve young driver safety.

Postpartum sleepiness and sleepy driving in Australian mothers

This paper reports on a prospective study investigating the prevalence of maternal postpartum fatigue and sleepiness and highlights the potential increased crash risk faced by mothers when driving in the postpartum period. Twenty-four mothers from across Australia completed a sleep and driving diary for seven consecutive days at three time points; when their baby was 6, 12 and 18 weeks old. The results showed that the mothers’ sleep varied within the sample; however, on average sleep disruption and lack of sleep consolidation was experienced. A high proportion of the mothers reported fatigue and sleepiness impacting their functioning early in the postpartum period, with sleepiness being more enduring throughout the period. Of concern, a high proportion of driving journeys undertaken by the mothers were during high levels of sleepiness, particularly early in the postpartum period and during late night and early hours of the day. These findings have highlighted the need to educate mothers about the potential increased safety risk of driving during the postpartum period and identified key information that should be conveyed.

Relationship between the dimensions of anxiety sensitivity and the symptoms of anxiety in clinical and non-clinical populations

Anxiety sensitivity (AS) is a cognitive vulnerability to anxiety. The Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) was developed to measure anxiety sensitivity but has gone through a number of revisions. The latest version, based on Australian clinical and non-clinical populations, is referred to as the ASI-21. It consists of 21 items comprising of four factors relating to the Fear of Respiratory symptoms dimension , Fear of Cardiovascular/Stroke symptoms dimension, Fear of Publicly Observable symptoms dimension and Fear of Cognitive Dyscontrol symptoms dimension. The current study aimed to explore the relationship between the dimensions of AS and the reported physiological, cognitive and phobic symptoms of anxiety in both a clinical and non-clinical population. A series of regression analyses revealed that although all dimensions had some association with the physiological, cognitive and phobic symptoms, one dimension the Fear of Cognitive Dyscontrol had the strongest relationship with symptoms of anxiety for both populations.