James G. Greene

Mitochondrial biogenesis in the anticonvulsant mechanism of the ketogenic diet

The full anticonvulsant effect of the ketogenic diet (KD) can require weeks to develop in rats, suggesting that altered gene expression is involved. The KD typically is used in pediatric epilepsies, but is effective also in adolescents and adults. Our goal was to use microarray and complementary technologies in adolescent rats to understand its anticonvulsant effect.

Nonmotor symptoms of Parkinson's disease revealed in an animal model with reduced monoamine storage capacity.

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by the loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, culminating in severe motor symptoms, including resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. In addition to motor deficits, there are a variety of nonmotor symptoms associated with PD. These symptoms generally precede the onset of motor symptoms, sometimes by years, and include anosmia, problems with gastrointestinal motility, sleep disturbances, sympathetic denervation, anxiety, and depression. Previously, we have shown that mice with a 95% genetic reduction in vesicular monoamine transporter expression (VMAT2-deficient, VMAT2 LO) display progressive loss of striatal dopamine, l-DOPA-responsive motor deficits, α-synuclein accumulation, and nigral dopaminergic cell loss. We hypothesized that since these animals exhibit deficits in other monoamine systems (norepinephrine and serotonin), which are known to regulate some of these behaviors, the VMAT2-deficient mice may display some of the nonmotor symptoms associated with PD. Here we report that the VMAT2-deficient mice demonstrate progressive deficits in olfactory discrimination, delayed gastric emptying, altered sleep latency, anxiety-like behavior, and age-dependent depressive behavior. These results suggest that the VMAT2-deficient mice may be a useful model of the nonmotor symptoms of PD. Furthermore, monoamine dysfunction may contribute to many of the nonmotor symptoms of PD, and interventions aimed at restoring monoamine function may be beneficial in treating the disease.

Loss of enteric dopaminergic neurons and associated changes in colon motility in an MPTP mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction is the most common non-motor symptom of Parkinsons disease (PD). Symptoms of GI dysmotility include early satiety and nausea from delayed gastric emptying, bloating from poor small bowel coordination, and constipation and defecatory dysfunction from impaired colonic transit. Understanding the pathophysiology and treatment of these symptoms in PD patients has been hampered by the lack of investigation into GI symptoms and pathology in PD animal models. We report that the prototypical parkinsonian neurotoxin, MPTP (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine), is a selective dopamine neuron toxin in the enteric nervous system (ENS). When examined 10 days after treatment, there was a 40% reduction of dopamine neurons in the ENS of C57Bl/6 mice administered MPTP (60 mg/kg). There were no differences in the density of cholinergic or nitric oxide neurons. Electrophysiological recording of neural-mediated muscle contraction in isolated colon from MPTP-treated animals confirmed a relaxation defect associated with dopaminergic degeneration. Behaviorally, MPTP induced a transient increase in colon motility, but no changes in gastric emptying or small intestine transit. These results provide the first comprehensive assessment of gastrointestinal pathophysiology in an animal model of PD. They provide insight into the impact of dopaminergic dysfunction on gastrointestinal motility and a benchmark for assessment of other PD model systems.

Characterization of the excitotoxic potential of the reversible succinate dehydrogenase inhibitor malonate.

Abstract: Although the mechanism of neuronal death in neurodegenerative diseases remains unknown, it has been hypothesized that relatively minor metabolic defects may predispose neurons to N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor‐mediated excitotoxic damage in these disorders. To further investigate this possibility, we have characterized the excitotoxic potential of the reversible succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) inhibitor malonate. After its intrastriatal stereotaxic injection into male Sprague‐Dawley rats, malonate produced a dose‐dependent lesion when assessed 3 days after surgery using cytochrome oxidase histochemistry. This lesion was attenuated by coadministration of excess succinate, indicating that it was caused by specific inhibition of SDH. The lesion was also prevented by administration of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist MK‐801. MK‐801 did not induce hypothermia, and hypothermia itself was not neuroprotective, suggesting that the neuroprotective effect of MK‐801 was due to blockade of the NMDA receptor ion channel and not to any nonspecific effect. The competitive NMDA antagonist LY274614 and the glycine site antagonist 7‐chlorokynurenate also profoundly attenuated malonate neurotoxicity, further indicating an NMDA receptor‐mediated event. Finally, the α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) antagonist NBQX (2,3‐dihydroxy‐6‐nitro‐7‐sulfamoylbenzo(f)‐quinoxaline) was ineffective at preventing malonate toxicity at a dose that effectively reduced S‐AMPA toxicity, indicating that non‐NMDA receptors are involved minimally, if at all, in the production of the malonate lesion. We conclude that inhibition of SDH by malonate results in NMDA receptor‐mediated excitotoxic neuronal death. If this mechanism of “secondary” or “weak” excitotoxicity plays a role in neurodegenerative disease, NMDA antagonists and other “antiexcitotoxic” strategies may have therapeutic potential for these diseases.

In Vivo Labeling of Mitochondrial Complex I (NADH:UbiquinoneOxidoreductase) in Rat Brain Using [3H]Dihydrorotenone

Abstract: Defects in mitochondrial energy metabolism have beenimplicated in several neurodegenerative disorders. Defective complex I(NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) activity plays a key role in Lebershereditary optic neuropathy and, possibly, Parkinsons disease, but there isno way to assess this enzyme in the living brain. We previously described anin vitro quantitative autoradiographic assay using[3H]dihydrorotenone ([3H]DHR) binding to complex I. Wehave now developed an in vivo autoradiographic assay for complex I using[3H]DHR binding after intravenous administration. In vivo[3H]DHR binding was regionally heterogeneous, and brain uptake wasrapid. Binding was enriched in neurons compared with glia, and white matterhad the lowest levels of binding. In vivo [3H]DHR binding wasmarkedly reduced by local and systemic infusion of rotenone and was enhancedby local NADH administration. There was an excellent correlation betweenregional levels of in vivo [3H]DHR binding and the in vitroactivities of complex II (succinate dehydrogenase) and complex IV (cytochromeoxidase), suggesting that the stoichiometry of these components of theelectron transport chain is relatively constant across brain regions. Theability to assay complex I in vivo should provide a valuable tool toinvestigate the status of this mitochondrial enzyme in the living brain andsuggests potential imaging techniques for complex I in humans.

Delayed gastric emptying and enteric nervous system dysfunction in the rotenone model of Parkinson’s disease

Gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction is the most common non-motor symptom of Parkinsons disease (PD). Symptoms of GI dysmotility in PD include early satiety and weight loss from delayed gastric emptying and constipation from impaired colonic transit. Understanding the pathophysiology and treatment of these symptoms in PD patients has been hampered by the lack of investigation into GI symptoms and pathology in PD animal models. We report that the parkinsonian neurotoxin and mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone causes delayed gastric emptying and enteric neuronal dysfunction when administered chronically to rats in the absence of major motor dysfunction or CNS pathology. When examined 22-28 days after initiation of rotenone infusion by osmotic minipump (3 mg/kg/day), 45% of rotenone-treated rats had a profound delay in gastric emptying. Electrophysiological recording of neurally-mediated muscle contraction in isolated colon from rotenone-treated animals confirmed an enteric inhibitory defect associated with rotenone treatment. Rotenone also induced a transient decrease in stool frequency that was associated with weight loss and decreased food and water intake. Pathologically, no alterations in enteric neuron numbers or morphology were apparent in rotenone-treated animals. These results suggest that enteric inhibitory neurons may be particularly vulnerable to the effects of mitochondrial inhibition by parkinsonian neurotoxins and provide evidence that parkinsonian gastrointestinal abnormalities can be modeled in rodents.

Parkinson's disease is not associated with gastrointestinal myenteric ganglion neuron loss.

Gastrointestinal dysfunction is a prominent non-motor feature of Parkinson’s disease (PD) that contributes directly to the morbidity of patients, complicates management of motor symptoms, and may herald incipient PD in patients without motor disability. Although PD has traditionally been considered a disease of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, analyses of gastrointestinal samples from PD patients have consistently revealed pathology in the enteric nervous system. The relationship of PD pathology to GI dysmotility is poorly understood, and this lack of understanding has led to limited success in developing treatments for PD-related GI symptoms. We have quantitatively compared myenteric neuron density and relative abundance of NO, VIP, and catecholamine neurons between patients with PD and control individuals along the length of the GI tract. In addition, we have examined the frequency of GI α-synuclein neuritic pathology and its co-localization with the same neuronal markers. We have included a comparison with a small population of patients with incidental Lewy bodies found at autopsy. These data indicate that there is no neuronal loss in the myenteric plexus in PD. Lewy body pathology parallels parasympathetic autonomic input from the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, not the distribution of extrinsic sympathetic input or intrinsic enteric neurons, and is only rarely co-localized with tyrosine hydroxylase. These data provide a critical background to which further analyses of the effect of PD on the GI tract may be compared and suggest that neuropathology in myenteric neurons is unlikely to be a causative factor in PD-related GI dysmotility.

Behavioral phenotyping of mouse models of Parkinson's disease.

Parkinsons disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative movement disorder afflicting millions of people in the United States. The advent of transgenic technologies has contributed to the development of several new mouse models, many of which recapitulate some aspects of the disease; however, no model has been demonstrated to faithfully reproduce the full constellation of symptoms seen in human PD. This may be due in part to the narrow focus on the dopamine-mediated motor deficits. As current research continues to unmask PD as a multi-system disorder, animal models should similarly evolve to include the non-motor features of the disease. This requires that typically cited behavioral test batteries be expanded. The major non-motor symptoms observed in PD patients include hyposmia, sleep disturbances, gastrointestinal dysfunction, autonomic dysfunction, anxiety, depression, and cognitive decline. Mouse behavioral tests exist for all of these symptoms and while some models have begun to be reassessed for the prevalence of this broader behavioral phenotype, the majority has not. Moreover, all behavioral paradigms should be tested for their responsiveness to L-DOPA so these data can be compared to patient response and help elucidate which symptoms are likely not dopamine-mediated. Here, we suggest an extensive, yet feasible, battery of behavioral tests for mouse models of PD aimed to better assess both non-motor and motor deficits associated with the disease.

Exacerbation of NMDA, AMPA, and l‐Glutamate Excitotoxicity by the Succinate Dehydrogenase Inhibitor Malonate

Abstract: We report that a subtoxic dose of the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) inhibitor malonate greatly enhances the neurotoxicity of three different excitatory amino acid agonists: N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA), S‐α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid (S‐AMPA), and l‐glutamate. In male Sprague‐Dawley rats, intrastriatal stereotaxic injection of malonate alone (0.6 µmol), NMDA alone (15 nmol), S‐AMPA alone (1 nmol), or glutamate alone (0.6 µmol) produced negligible toxicity as assessed by measurement of lesion volume. Coinjection of subtoxic malonate with NMDA produced a large lesion (15.2 ± 1.4 mm3), as did coinjection of malonate with S‐AMPA (11.0 ± 1.0 mm3) or glutamate (12.8 ± 0.7 mm3). Administration of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist MK‐801 (5 mg/kg i.p.) completely blocked the toxicity of malonate plus NMDA (0.5 ± 0.3 mm3). This dose of MK‐801 had little effect on the lesion produced by malonate plus S‐AMPA (9.0 ± 0.7 mm3), but it attenuated the toxicity of malonate plus glutamate by ∼40% (7.5 ± 0.9 mm3). Coinjection of the AMPA antagonist 2,3‐dihydroxy‐6‐nitro‐7‐sulfamoylbenzo(f)‐quinoxaline (NBQX; 2 nmol) had no effect on malonate plus NMDA or malonate plus glutamate toxicity (12.3 ± 1.8 and 14.0 ± 0.9 mm3, respectively) but greatly attenuated malonate plus S‐AMPA toxicity (1.5 ± 0.9 mm3). Combination of the two antagonists conferred no additional neuroprotection in any paradigm. These results indicate that metabolic inhibition exacerbates both NMDA receptor‐ and non‐NMDA receptor‐mediated excitotoxicity. They also suggest that the NMDA receptor may play a major role in situations of metabolic compromise in vivo, where glutamate is the endogenous agonist. Furthermore, glutamate toxicity under conditions of metabolic compromise may not be mediated entirely by ionotropic glutamate receptors.

Manipulation of Membrane Potential Modulates Malonate-Induced Striatal Excitotoxicity In Vivo

Abstract: Malonate is a reversible inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) that produces neurotoxicity by an N‐methyl‐d‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor‐dependent mechanism. We have examined the influence of pharmacological manipulation of membrane potential on striatal malonate toxicity in rats in vivo by analysis of lesion volume. Depolarization caused by coinjection of the Na+,K+‐ATPase inhibitor ouabain or a high concentration of potassium greatly exacerbated malonate toxicity; this combined toxicity was blocked by the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist MK‐801. The toxicity of NMDA was also exacerbated by ouabain. The overt toxicity of a high dose of ouabain (1 nmol) was largely prevented by MK‐801. Coinjection of the K+ channel activator minoxidil (4 nmol) to reduce depolarization attenuated the toxicity of 1 µmol of malonate by ∼60% without affecting malonate‐induced ATP depletion. These results indicate that membrane depolarization exacerbates malonate neurotoxicity and that membrane hyperpolarization protects against malonate‐induced neuronal damage. We hypothesize that the effects of membrane potential on malonate toxicity are mediated through the NMDA receptor as a result of its combined agonist‐ and voltage‐dependent properties.