James J. Wang

A CONTAINER LOAD CENTER WITH A DEVELOPING HINTERLAND: A CASE STUDY OF HONG KONG

Abstract The development of the Hong Kong container port in a regional context is examined in the light of Hayuths five-stage load-center model. The port-hinterland relationship between Hong Kong and China is unique as the hub and its hinterland belonged to two economies at different development levels and of different institutional settings. The development gap in containerization resulted in the inter-port competition stage being missed when Hong Kong became a load center. This case deviated further from Hayuths model, as the challenge to the center from peripheral ports is largely an outcome of the penetration of the hub operators into other ports in China.

The challenge of peripheral ports: an Asian perspective

The growth of ports peripheral to the dominant container hubs has been well documented in North America and Europe, and has led to the elaboration of several theoretical models. This paper applies these models to the situation in South East Asia where much of the growth in containerisation is taking place. While confirming the emergence of several peripheral ports that are mounting challenges to the major hubs, we demonstrate that the factors behind the challenges are different to those postulated in the literature. Issues of governance arising out of the complex restructuring of the global ports industry are singled out. We suggest that a new geography of container terminals based on management and operational strategies of private and public bodies involved in the port industry needs to be fashioned.

The evolution of a regional container port system: the Pearl River Delta

Abstract This study investigates the progress of container port system development in South China, focusing particularly on the interplay between Hong Kong and the other ports in the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region. After identifying the downgrading trend of Hong Kong from a transshipment hub port for Asia and for China as a whole to a regional load center and the emergence of other deep-sea direct-service ports, the paper looks into the causes of this structural change of the port system. Four major causes are identified: the cost-base competition, the impact of the unique “one-country two-systems” policy, the impact of globalization and container standardization, and the impact of multi-modal accessibility and connectivity. The paper reveals that the interplay between different governments and between the governments and port operators are the local mechanisms that together as a whole respond to the shippers’ needs and the shipping lines’ pressure. It confirms that the interdependencies and competitive relations between terminals are being played out at a regional level. While the particular situation of the PRD is unique in many regards, the features emerging there, with its dominant hub, its network of feeder ports and its emerging direct-service non-hub terminals, are being replicated elsewhere.

Regional governance of port development in China: A case study of Shanghai International Shipping Center

When China enters the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and becomes more involved in the global economy, her major seaports will be pivotal places where the international shipping and terminal operators interact, conflict and co-operate with the local and the central governments. To demonstrate and understand these interactions, this article analyzes the case of the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), where the competition, co-operation and governance of Shanghai and Ningbo, the two largest ports on Chinese mainland, concern all stakeholders from the central and local governments of China to the container terminal operators and shipping lines overseas. This paper first develops a conceptual framework for analyzing port development in a regional context. The article then introduces the case of the Shanghai International Shipping Center with a focus on the efforts of the Shanghai Government to establish a regional hub port, which also involves two nearby provinces. This case study reveals the course of the decision-making processes and the power networks currently governing the port development in the YRD. Two domains of port governance are discussed: the role of port authorities in port internal governance, and the crucial influences of local and central governments on the port external governance. It provides evidence that the power of shipping lines and international terminal operators are not as prevalent as in many ports in western countries. It is suggested that the lack of good regional port governance in the region is due to structural problems in administration.

Spatial impacts of high-speed railways in China: A total-travel-time approach

In China the development of high-speed rail (HSR) is a national strategy for stimulating economic growth. Major decisions, such as determining which cities to connect and deciding the locations of stations, are made through a state-led planning process. Consequently, HSR stations are often located in urban edges. The connections of these stations with local transport infrastructure and services vary significantly. Passengers need to spend extra time to reach these stations before they can use the HSR. This paper examines the time savings due to the improved intercity connections brought by HSR. It goes on to investigate the user friendliness of HSR by measuring the total door-to-door travel time and accessibility. On the basis of data gathered from questionnaire surveys and from total travel time estimations, it is argued that the poor accessibility of HSR stations hinders the effectiveness of the HSR system.

An unplanned commercial district in a fast-growing city: a case study of Shenzhen, China

Abstract From a planning perspective, this paper addresses a new format of retail found in China through a case study of Shenzhen City. The city has grown very fast in the last two decades from a small township of 60,000 people to a city of over 6 million. Dramatic economic growth and urbanization left planners behind, and a former industrial district turned into a commercial district within a few years of time in the late 1990s. This unplanned development pushed by market forces has shown some features commonly found in the evolution of ‘high-street’ in the West, while there are some unique features that are typically represented by a group of theme shopping complexes (TSC) in the district of Hua Qiang Bei (HQB). We argue that TSC as a special format of retail appeared in the world fastest growing city has its own reasons. They include (1) the lack of matured shopping center developers, (2) the lack of matured retail chains, (3) the uncertainty of government policy and regulations that resulted in short-term and fragmented leasing of space to small retail tenants, and (4) large and continuing demands from newly immigrated low-to-middle income working class. It is yet to be seen that this TSC format would continue and diffuse to other fast growing but less developed cities in China, or would be replaced by shopping malls soon when retain chains dominate.

How does parking interplay with the built environment and affect automobile commuting in high-density cities? A case study in China:

This study investigates an important but often overlooked problem – the interaction between parking and land use – to examine the effects of the built environment on car commuting. Using the case of Shenzhen, China, a structural equation model is employed to examine the tripartite relationship among the built environment, parking supply and car commuting. The parking–built environment relationship partly reflects the parking supply mechanism that is collectively influenced by the parking market and regulations. The results indicate that, because of the high cost of constructing parking, property developers are reluctant to build sufficient parking spaces for the residential population in densely built neighbourhoods with small lot sizes. However, minimum parking standards often lead to more parking provisions in dense central locations. Therefore, the benefits of compact land use and transit-oriented development (TOD) for reducing car use are either reinforced or offset depending on the various interrelationships between parking and the built environment. In the context of policy implications, a fine-grained urban fabric should be particularly supported, considering its significant effects in reducing car commuting, as well as its potential role in fostering a well-functioning parking market. Meanwhile, imposing parking caps in dense and central areas would be wise because parking oversupply encourages more car trips, which counteracts the sustainable merits of dense developments.

Mature hub ports in the free trade environment, the way forward from a global supply chain perspective: an Asian case

Asia-Pacific countries with divergent economic and political backgrounds developed a regime of bilateral free trade agreements in response to globalization. Challenged by the 1997 and 2008 financial crises, this Asian trade regime has remained intact, although the most powerful stakeholders have changed positions, as indicated by the strong emergence of China in the past decade. Efforts of key trading partners to tackle non-tariff barriers (e.g., rule of origin and customs formalities) in the region have yielded little progress thus far. Instead of aiming at a regional consensus on non-tariff barriers by all member states, a global supply chain (GSC) approach is recommended. Mature hub ports at strategic locations with advanced institutional measures could set up international trade facilitation centers co-locating multinational customs formalities. This GSC approach may also be adopted to construct a GSC hub development model that explains the transformation of hub ports.

How do the effects of local built environment on household vehicle kilometers traveled vary across urban structural zones

ABSTRACT Many studies have examined the effects of the local built environment (LBE) on household car usage. However, it remains unclear how these effects vary across urban structural zones. This study examines the case of Shenzhen and employs a multigroup structural equation model to reveal the varying LBE effects among car-owning households in inner-city, inner-suburban, and outer-suburban zones. The empirical modeling results indicate that the distance from the residence to the city center and the work-home distance have the greatest influence on household vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT). Average household VKT decreases with the distance from the residence to the city center after it peaks at the threshold radius distance of 8–10 km to the city center. In general, dense, mixed, small-block land use patterns reduce household VKT. However, the magnitude and significance of the LBE effects on household VKT vary across urban structural zones. These findings suggest that land-use policies can be developed specifically for different urban structural zones to effectively decrease household VKT.

The impacts of final delivery solutions on e-shopping usage behaviour: The case of Shenzhen, China

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of final delivery solutions on e-shopping usage behaviour by modelling their interaction across residents living in different neighourhoods with availabilities of different facilities, including automated parcel stations (APSs), collection and delivery points (CDPs), and the direct-to-home delivery stations of parcel express firms (PEFs). Design/methodology/approach The study is based on a survey on e-shopping behaviour and delivery awareness. A mixed structural equation model is used to predict the interactions among availability of final delivery facilities (AFDF), level of satisfaction with delivery services and e-shopping usage after controlling individual socioeconomic attributes and retail environment. Findings Compared with AFDF, individual socioeconomic attributes are the most influential factors contributing to e-shopping spending and frequency. Improving AFDF has only a slight effect on e-shopping spending, while a larger impact on e-shopping frequency and perceived satisfaction to delivery services is observed. The quantity of PEF delivery stations has a relatively large influence on e-shopping usage but the effects of APSs and CDPs are not as strong as expected. Research limitations/implications The causality between final delivery solutions and e-shopping behaviour can be further tested by using social experiments or longitudinal data. Practical implications All findings will help business and public policy decision makers to derive a balanced and effective deployment of final delivery solutions, which is also referential for other emerging markets similar to China. Originality/value This study theoretically contributes to the international literature by examining the heterogeneous effects of final delivery solutions on different aspects of e-shopping engagement.