James M. Gladden

Understanding Brand Loyalty in Professional Sport: Examining the Link Between Brand Associations and Brand Loyalty

This paper examines the relationship between brand associations (anything in the consumers mind linked to a specific team brand) and brand loyalty in US professional sport. To study the relationship between 13 brand association dimensions and brand loyalty, a survey of professional sport consumers was completed (N = 929). Results of multiple regression analysis revealed positive relationships between fan identification, escape, nostalgia, and product delivery, and brand loyalty. Negative relationships were found between tradition, star players, and peer group acceptance, and brand loyalty.

Motivational Factors Influencing the Behaviour of J. League Spectators

The Japanese Professional Soccer League (J. League) began in 1993 and was the first professional soccer league in Japan. After an initial period of strong interest, spectator support for the League has declined. The primary purpose of the current study was to develop a means for measuring selected motives influencing the behaviour of J. League spectators. The second purpose was to then use the measurement scale to examine the impact of these motives on spectator behaviour. Seven motives for J. League spectators were identified in the current study (drama, vicarious achievement, aesthetics, team attachment, player attachment, sport attachment, and community pride), based on prior attempts to measure the motives of sport consumers (e.g., Madrigal & Howard, 1995; Wann, 1995), and an understanding of Japanese culture and J. League spectators. Items were generated to measure each of the seven motives. Confirmatory factor analysis of the scale based on a survey of J. League attendees indicated that seven factors extracted 57% of the variance and were suitable for further analysis. Additional analysis indicated the relative importance of the motives in predicting variance in length of time as a fan and frequency of attendance. Sport attachment predicted the most variance in length of time as a fan, while team attachment was the strongest predictor of frequency of attendance. These results have implications for sport practitioners seeking to improve their marketing efforts and for sport researchers seeking to better understand the motives of sport consumers.

A Framework for Understanding Cause-Related Sport Marketing Programs

To date, cause-related sport marketing (CRSM) has not received much academic attention. However, it is particularly relevant given recent estimates on the amounts that will be spent on cause-related efforts in 2002. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to set forth a framework for managing cause-related sport marketing programs. The framework is derived using both past research on causerelated marketing and branding theory. It theorizes the necessary conditions that must be present if the CRSM program is to result in the intended outcomes of 1) enhanced brand image, 2) enhanced brand loyalty and 3) consumer brand switching.

Real Women Watch Football: Gender Differences in the Consumption of the NFL Super Bowl Broadcast

The present study explores the role gender plays in the consumption of sport broadcasting, specifically, the National Football Leagues (NFL) Super Bowl broadcast. Data were collected from self-identified, serious NFL fans and casual or non-NFL fans alike using an online survey. Results indicate that female viewers held more positive attitudes toward the “entertainment” elements of the broadcast (e.g., celebrity singing the national anthem, the MVP Award presentation) than male respondents. Female respondents also held more favorable attitudes toward the entertainment value of the Super Bowl halftime show. Female and male respondents also differed in their motives for watching a NFL game broadcast.

Sponsorship of Intercollegiate Athletics: The Importance of Image Matching

Given the importance of image matching as a rationale for sponsorship investment, this paper examines the extent to which image matching occurs in U.S. intercollegiate athletics. Utilizing student-athlete education and athletic program ethics as image dimensions, while controlling for winning, the authors find that individual corporations tend to sponsor athletic programs that project very different images. The authors then prescribe an approach that prospective sponsors could use to determine appropriate image matches.

Biases in Self-Reports of Zip Codes and Zip +4 in Geodemographic Segmentation

Clustering, or target marketing to a specific geographic segment has become widespread practice over the past decade. Yet, little research has been done to verify the validity of zip code based data generated through survey research. Using data gathered in a national United States mail survey, this research evaluates biases that may occur by demographic category when respondents self-report their zip code and zip code+4 extension. Significant reporting differences with respect to the gender, education level, and age of respondents are revealed. To further explore the issue, the discussion section provides a comparison between zip code+4 self-reporting rates and geodemographic social groups as created by the Claritas PRIZM system. Such comparisons also suggest bias may occur between differing geodemographic segments when zip code information is self-reported.