James N. Meindl

Initiating and responding to joint attention bids in children with autism: A review of the literature

Joint attention is a skill that involves coordinating the attention of at least two individuals towards an object or event. Although it is seen as a critical skill in early child development, it is frequently absent in children with autism and has been linked to poorer language outcomes for those children. As a result, multiple interventions have been developed to teach children with autism to respond to, and initiate, bids for joint attention. These interventions, however, differ widely both in terms of procedures used and in whether they focus on teaching children to respond to, or initiate, bids for joint attention. This literature review was conducted to document research gaps and intervention similarities between joint attention intervention studies for children with autism. The specific intent of this review was to determine whether researchers teach responding and initiating separately or sequentially, describe the extent to which procedures differ among studies, and identify whether social or non-social consequences are used during joint attention training. Implications for the treatment of joint attention deficits are discussed and recommendations to both researchers and practitioners are provided.

Understanding preference shifts: A review of within-trial contrast and state-dependent valuation

Stimuli that precede aversive events are typically less preferred than stimuli that precede nonaversive events. It has recently been demonstrated that stimuli that follow less preferred events may become favored more than stimuli that follow more preferred events. This phenomenon has been investigated under a variety of names, most commonly, within-trial contrast and state-dependent valuation. Although this effect has been replicated, there have been several failures to replicate and it is still little understood. This paper reviews and summarizes the literature on within-trial contrast and state-dependent valuation. Procedural variations across studies are identified and discussed. The two current models that explain the phenomenon are then outlined and the limitations of each model are described. A third explanation is offered that incorporates the concept of motivating operations. Last, the predictions of all three models are compared.

Mass Shootings: The Role of the Media in Promoting Generalized Imitation

Mass shootings are a particular problem in the United States, with one mass shooting occurring approximately every 12.5 days. Recently a “contagion” effect has been suggested wherein the occurrence of one mass shooting increases the likelihood of another mass shooting occurring in the near future. Although contagion is a convenient metaphor used to describe the temporal spread of a behavior, it does not explain how the behavior spreads. Generalized imitation is proposed as a better model to explain how one persons behavior can influence another person to engage in similar behavior. Here we provide an overview of generalized imitation and discuss how the way in which the media report a mass shooting can increase the likelihood of another shooting event. Also, we propose media reporting guidelines to minimize imitation and further decrease the likelihood of a mass shooting.

The Effect of Colored Overlays on Reading Fluency in Individuals with Dyslexia.

Colored overlays, one type of tinted filter, are plastic reading sheets tinted with color and placed over text to eliminate or alleviate a wide range of reading difficulties such as low reading rate, accuracy, and comprehension. The effects of colored overlays on reading problems associated with dyslexia were investigated in this study via a multielement design. Reading fluency was assessed when participants read with and without colored overlays. Undifferentiated responding, or decreased accuracy, resulted across three participants, suggesting that colored overlays were ineffective and potentially detrimental to participants’ reading abilities. As a result, empirically validated reading techniques were implemented across individuals. These findings are discussed and recommendations are made in regards to the use of research-based reading interventions.

Current Trends in Education: How Single-subject Research Can Help Middle and High School Educators Keep Up with the Zeitgeist

Abstract Trends in educational research, teaching practices, and teacher responsibilities change over time. There is currently a movement away from relying on summative assessment and large-group research to assessing individual students on a formative basis. This push is partially legal, and the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) is encouraging adoption of Response to Intervention (RtI) at all levels of education. One research methodology that is particularly poised to meet the call by IDEIA is single-subject research designs, which have recently been endorsed by the What Works Clearinghouse. This article provides an overview of common single-subject designs, discusses the underlying logic of these designs, identifies many advantages this methodology provides to the classroom, and describes the dimension of behavior that may be measured and graphed for visual analysis. Understanding single-subject research designs and their use at the middle and secondary level is one of the first steps toward implementation of the RtI model after elementary school.

Reducing Media-Induced Mass Killings: Lessons From Suicide Prevention:

A mass killing is a complex behavior that is the product of a range of variables. Recent research suggests one such variable by showing that when a mass killing occurs there is a heightened chance of another occurring in the near future. This increase in probability has been referred to as contagion and one possible mechanism for contagion may be generalized imitation. Generalized imitation requires the presence of some model to prompt imitation, and we suggest media reporting methods as a prominent model inspiring future mass killings. This article analyzes mass killings as the culmination of a sequence of thoughts and actions that are influenced by environmental events including media reports of mass killings. We then evaluate media reporting guidelines and research related to the prevention of suicide and other imitational behaviors to identify reactive and proactive strategies that could minimize the likelihood of one mass killing inducing another.

Explaining language: A behavioral critique of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior.

In Verbal Behavior (1957), Skinner attempted to offer a functional account of human language and made a point of contrasting his approach with the more traditional accounts available at the time. Rather than focus on the structure or mechanics of language (formal aspects of language), Skinner attempted to identify the conditions that gave rise to those behaviors. Although Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior has been influential, particularly in treating language deficits for individuals with autism, there are conceptual problems with the way he defined and categorized verbal behavior. In this paper we argue that Skinner’s analysis is in fact largely based on formal aspects (rather than functional) and that this has both created confusion and limited the utility of the analysis. Specifically, we argue that Skinner’s formal account makes it difficult to distinguish verbal from nonverbal behavior and to distinguish the various types of verbal responses from one another. We then summarize and respond to some of the contemporary defenses and criticisms of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior. Finally, we argue that although Skinner’s analysis has had some practical utility, the conceptual benefits are questionable. S C I E N T I F I C A B S T R A C T Skinner (1957) offered a behavioral account of language in his book Verbal Behavior. Compared to more traditional, structural accounts of language at the time, Skinner’s analysis attempted to identify the variables that control and maintain verbal behavior. This behavioral account of language has proven useful, especially in the area of treating language deficits for individuals with autism. However, there exist conceptual problems with Skinner’s analysis. The definition of verbal behavior and subsequent taxonomy of verbal operants (or units) is based largely on formal properties. We suggest that these formal elements of Skinner’s analysis result in arbitrary distinctions that emphasize the form of behavior or stimuli. This is problematic, at a conceptual level, as distinguishing between verbal and nonverbal behavior and distinguishing between the different verbal operants necessitates not only a functional account of stimuli but identification of the source and form of stimuli. In this paper, we examine some of the contemporary defenses and criticisms of Skinner’s analysis. Lastly, we conclude that although Skinner’s analysis of language has had practical utility, the conceptual benefits are limited.

Functional analysis results across a known and unknown assessor

ABSTRACT Functional analyses determine behavior function by examining response patterns across various contingency conditions. Typically, functional analyses are conducted by a trained clinician with whom the participant is often unfamiliar. This unfamiliarity might influence the outcome of the analysis, potentially leading to misidentification of function. This study examined the responding of two participants during functional analyses conducted by a known and unknown assessor. The influence of familiarity was initially observed across both participants; however, with extended exposure to the functional analysis responding became similar across assessors for both participants. Importantly, different conclusions regarding function may be drawn at various points during the analysis. These findings are discussed with regard to the influence of participant–assessor history and recommendations are provided regarding conducting a functional analysis.

Token Economy: A Systematic Review of Procedural Descriptions:

The token economy is a well-established and widely used behavioral intervention. A token economy is comprised of six procedural components: the target response(s), a token that functions as a conditioned reinforcer, backup reinforcers, and three interconnected schedules of reinforcement. Despite decades of applied research, the extent to which the procedures of a token economy are described in complete and replicable detail has not been evaluated. Given the inherent complexity of a token economy, an analysis of the procedural descriptions may benefit future token economy research and practice. Articles published between 2000 and 2015 that included implementation of a token economy within an applied setting were identified and reviewed with a focus on evaluating the thoroughness of procedural descriptions. The results show that token economy components are regularly omitted or described in vague terms. Of the articles included in this analysis, only 19% (18 of 96 articles reviewed) included replicable and complete descriptions of all primary components. Missing or vague component descriptions could negatively affect future research or applied practice. Recommendations are provided to improve component descriptions.