Jonathan W. Ivy

Mass Shootings: The Role of the Media in Promoting Generalized Imitation

Mass shootings are a particular problem in the United States, with one mass shooting occurring approximately every 12.5 days. Recently a “contagion” effect has been suggested wherein the occurrence of one mass shooting increases the likelihood of another mass shooting occurring in the near future. Although contagion is a convenient metaphor used to describe the temporal spread of a behavior, it does not explain how the behavior spreads. Generalized imitation is proposed as a better model to explain how one persons behavior can influence another person to engage in similar behavior. Here we provide an overview of generalized imitation and discuss how the way in which the media report a mass shooting can increase the likelihood of another shooting event. Also, we propose media reporting guidelines to minimize imitation and further decrease the likelihood of a mass shooting.

Reducing Media-Induced Mass Killings: Lessons From Suicide Prevention:

A mass killing is a complex behavior that is the product of a range of variables. Recent research suggests one such variable by showing that when a mass killing occurs there is a heightened chance of another occurring in the near future. This increase in probability has been referred to as contagion and one possible mechanism for contagion may be generalized imitation. Generalized imitation requires the presence of some model to prompt imitation, and we suggest media reporting methods as a prominent model inspiring future mass killings. This article analyzes mass killings as the culmination of a sequence of thoughts and actions that are influenced by environmental events including media reports of mass killings. We then evaluate media reporting guidelines and research related to the prevention of suicide and other imitational behaviors to identify reactive and proactive strategies that could minimize the likelihood of one mass killing inducing another.

Increasing the Post-Use Cleaning of Gym Equipment Using Prompts and Increased Access to Cleaning Materials

A multiple treatment reversal design was used to evaluate the effects of three different antecedent-based interventions on the post-use cleaning of gym equipment. Unidentified students, faculty, staff, and community members participated in this study. An announcement, signs, and signs together with increased accessibility to cleaning materials were evaluated. The highest level of post-use cleaning was observed under the signs plus accessibility condition. These results indicate that the use of antecedent-based interventions may be a viable option for increasing cleaning behavior.

Explaining language: A behavioral critique of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior.

In Verbal Behavior (1957), Skinner attempted to offer a functional account of human language and made a point of contrasting his approach with the more traditional accounts available at the time. Rather than focus on the structure or mechanics of language (formal aspects of language), Skinner attempted to identify the conditions that gave rise to those behaviors. Although Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior has been influential, particularly in treating language deficits for individuals with autism, there are conceptual problems with the way he defined and categorized verbal behavior. In this paper we argue that Skinner’s analysis is in fact largely based on formal aspects (rather than functional) and that this has both created confusion and limited the utility of the analysis. Specifically, we argue that Skinner’s formal account makes it difficult to distinguish verbal from nonverbal behavior and to distinguish the various types of verbal responses from one another. We then summarize and respond to some of the contemporary defenses and criticisms of Skinner’s analysis of verbal behavior. Finally, we argue that although Skinner’s analysis has had some practical utility, the conceptual benefits are questionable. S C I E N T I F I C A B S T R A C T Skinner (1957) offered a behavioral account of language in his book Verbal Behavior. Compared to more traditional, structural accounts of language at the time, Skinner’s analysis attempted to identify the variables that control and maintain verbal behavior. This behavioral account of language has proven useful, especially in the area of treating language deficits for individuals with autism. However, there exist conceptual problems with Skinner’s analysis. The definition of verbal behavior and subsequent taxonomy of verbal operants (or units) is based largely on formal properties. We suggest that these formal elements of Skinner’s analysis result in arbitrary distinctions that emphasize the form of behavior or stimuli. This is problematic, at a conceptual level, as distinguishing between verbal and nonverbal behavior and distinguishing between the different verbal operants necessitates not only a functional account of stimuli but identification of the source and form of stimuli. In this paper, we examine some of the contemporary defenses and criticisms of Skinner’s analysis. Lastly, we conclude that although Skinner’s analysis of language has had practical utility, the conceptual benefits are limited.

Token Economy: A Systematic Review of Procedural Descriptions:

The token economy is a well-established and widely used behavioral intervention. A token economy is comprised of six procedural components: the target response(s), a token that functions as a conditioned reinforcer, backup reinforcers, and three interconnected schedules of reinforcement. Despite decades of applied research, the extent to which the procedures of a token economy are described in complete and replicable detail has not been evaluated. Given the inherent complexity of a token economy, an analysis of the procedural descriptions may benefit future token economy research and practice. Articles published between 2000 and 2015 that included implementation of a token economy within an applied setting were identified and reviewed with a focus on evaluating the thoroughness of procedural descriptions. The results show that token economy components are regularly omitted or described in vague terms. Of the articles included in this analysis, only 19% (18 of 96 articles reviewed) included replicable and complete descriptions of all primary components. Missing or vague component descriptions could negatively affect future research or applied practice. Recommendations are provided to improve component descriptions.