James P. Connell

A New Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perceptions of Control.

Perceived control plays a central role in many motivational and cognitive accounts of behavior. In this study, a new 48-item self-report instrument, the Multidimensional Measure of Childrens Perceptions of Control, is described. Perceptions of control are defined as childrens understanding of the locus of the sufficient cause for success and failure outcomes. 3 dimensions of third- through ninth-grade childrens perceptions of control are independently assessed: internal, powerful others, and unknown. Each of these sources of control is assessed within 3 behavioral domains: cognitive, social, and physical. General items are also included. Perceptions of control over success outcomes and failure outcomes are assessed separately. The psychometric properties of the new measures subscales are presented. Correlations of the new measure with measures of perceived and actual competence and findings demonstrating the sensitivity of the new measure to developmental, gender, and environmental influences are reported. It is argued that the new measure is an advance over existing measures of internal versus external locus of control in children because it provides domain-specific assessments of 3 separate dimensions of locus of control, including the previously untapped dimension of unknown control.

What Motivates Children's Behavior and Emotion? Joint Effects of Perceived Control and Autonomy in the Academic Domain

This study examined the contribution of perceived control and autonomy to childrens self-reported behavior and emotion in the classroom (N = 246 children ages 8-10 years). Multiple regression analyses revealed unique effects of autonomy over and above the strong effects of perceived control. In addition, both sets of perceptions (and their interaction) were found to distinguish children who were active but emotionally disaffected from those who were active and emotionally positive. Specific predictions were also tested regarding the effects of (a) control attributions to 5 causes and (b) 4 reasons for task involvement that differed in degree of autonomy on childrens active (vs. passive) behavior and 4 kinds of emotions: boredom, distress, anger, and positive emotions. Implications of the findings for theories of childrens motivation are discussed, as well as for diagnostic strategies to identify children at risk for motivational problems

Effect of grade retention on self-system processes, school engagement, and academic performance

Third- through 6th-grade retained students (n = 74) were compared with random (n = 60) and matched-ability (n = 69) samples of nonretained students from their present classrooms and students from earlier classrooms who were socially promoted (n = 35) when the retained students were held back. Retained students did not differ significantly from the comparison groups in perceptions of self-worth or peer relatedness but had significantly lower perceptions of cognitive competence than the random sample. Retained students did not perform as well academically as the random sample but performed just as well as the matched ability sample and better than the socially promoted sample

The Effect of Aptitude and Achievement Status on the Self-System

This investigation examined the independent and joint effects of aptitude (gifted vs. normal) and achievement (underachiever vs. achiever) on assessments of the self-system in upper elementary-aged children. The gifted group was significantly higher than the average group on self-evaluations of competence, feelings of mastery, and preference for independent decision making. The average group reported a lower level of understanding than the gifted group about the reasons for success and failure outcomes and more anxiety about school-related events. Underachievers were significantly lower than achievers on self-evaluations of performance and higher on perceptions of internal control over success and failure outcomes. Achievers were higher on perceptions of control by powerful others over outcomes.

Infant emotion regulation with mothers and fathers

Abstract This study was designed to examine infant emotion regulation within mildly frustrating delay situations with mothers and fathers. Contextual influences on, and consistent individual differences in, observed strategy use and expressed emotion were assessed in a sample of 12 1 2 -to 14-month- old infants, each seen on two occasions, once with each parent. Infants were seen in two delay situations with each parent, one in which the parent was asked to remain fairly inactive, and one in which no restrictions were placed on parental behavior. Results suggested strong contextual (parent- passive vs. parent-active) influences on the level of expressed negative versus positive emotion, and on the types of emotion regulation strategies used by infants, but few sex-of-parent effects. Overall, results suggest that expressed emotion and strategy use are more similar than different in interactions with mothers and fathers. However, some differential use of particular emotion regulation strategies may reflect developing adaptations made by infants to different characteristics of relationships with mothers and fathers.

Consistency and inconsistency in infant emotional and social interactive behavior across contexts and caregivers

Abstract This study examined consistency in infant emotional and social interactive behavior in stressful and nonstressful situations with mothers and fathers. Infants were seen at 12 and 13 months, once with each parent. Emotion was assessed during free play and the Strange Situation. Strange Situation social interactive behaviors were also examined. Results demonstrated that (a) proximity seeking and contact maintaining are consistent cross-parent, (b) emotion is more consistent from free play to the Strange Situation with the father than with the mother, and (c) emotion is primarily consistent cross-parent within the Strange Situation, not in free play. These results suggest both infant- and relationship-based determinants of behavior within the Strange Situation. The greater cross-context consistency in infant emotion with the father is interpreted as supportive of the view that infant—father interactions reflect primarily affiliative, rather than attachment, relationships.