Wendy S. Grolnick

Autonomy in Children's Learning: An Experimental and Individual Difference Investigation

Ninety-one fifth-grade children participated in a study that assessed the effects of motivationally relevant conditions and individual differences on emotional experience and performance on a learning task. Two directed-learning conditions, one controlling and one noncontrolling, were contrasted with each other and with a third nondirected, spontaneous-learning context. Both directed sets resulted in greater rote learning compared with the nondirected-learning condition. However, both the nondirected and the noncontrolling directed-learning sets resulted in greater interest and conceptual learning compared with the controlling set, presumably because they were more conducive to autonomy or an internal perceived locus of causality. Furthermore, children in the controlling condition experienced more pressure and evidenced a greater deterioration in rote learning over an 8-(+/- 1) day follow-up. Individual differences in childrens autonomy for school-related activities as measured by the Self-Regulation Questionnaire (Connell & Ryan, 1985) also related to outcomes, with more self-determined styles predicting greater conceptual learning. Results are discussed in terms of the role of autonomy in learning and development and the issue of directed versus nondirected learning.

Inner Resources for School Achievement: Motivational Mediators of Children's Perceptions of Their Parents.

This study examined a process model of relations among childrens perceptions of their parents, their motivation, and their performance in school. Childrens perceptions of their parents on dimensions of autonomy support and involvement were measured with the new childrens perceptions of parents scale. Three motivation variablesmcontrol understanding, perceived competence, and perceived autonomymwere hypothesized to mediate between childrens perceptions of their parents and their school performance. Analyses indicated that perceived maternal autonomy support and involvement were positively associated with perceived competence, control understanding, and perceptions of autonomy. Perceived paternal autonomy support and involvement were related to perceived competence and autonomy. In turn, the 3 motivation variables, referred to as inner resources, predicted childrens performance. Structural equation modeling generally supported the mediational model.

Self-Perceptions, Motivation, and Adjustment in Children with Learning Disabilities A Multiple Group Comparison Study

This study examined the self-perceptions, motivational orientations, and classroom adjustment of children with learning disabilities (LD), matched-IQ non-LD, randomly selected non-LD, and low achieving children. Elementary-age children (N= 148; 37 from each group) completed domain-specific measures of their self-concepts, perceptions of control, and motivation. Teachers rated children on motivational and competence indices and classroom behavioral adjustment. Comparisons among groups indicated that children with LD were lower in perceived cognitive competence and academic self-regulation relative to the nondisabled control groups, but were comparable to the low achieving children. Children with LD were most likely to perceive academic outcomes as controlled by powerful others. No group differences were found for general self-perceptions of control or competence. Teacher ratings of children with LD were more discrepant from those of comparison groups than were self-ratings of children with LD. The results suggest the need for matched-IQ and low achieving control groups in research on children with LD. The origin and role of both environmental inputs and self-perceptions in the adjustment of students with LD are discussed.

Parental Resources and the Transition to Junior High

This study examined whether maternal resources of involvement and autonomy support might buffer children against the negative effects of the transition to junior high. A diverse sample of 60 children, their mothers, and teachers participated. Three types of involvement (school, cognitive, and personal) and levels of autonomy support were assessed during both 6th and 7th grades. Children’s motivational resources (perceived competence, control understanding, self-regulation) as well as outcomes of self-worth, grades, and adjustment were also assessed at the 2 time periods. Children whose mothers were higher in cognitive and personal involvement in 6th grade decreased less in perceived competence over the transition relative to those of mothers who were less involved. Children of more autonomy supportive mothers increased less in acting-out and learning problems. Changes in maternal resources were also predictive of changes in motivation and outcomes. The results suggest the importance of the home environment in children’s coping with the transition to junior high.

Correlates of mastery-related behavior: a short-term longitudinal study of infants in their second year.

The present study examined correlates of mastery-related behavior across the infants second year of life. Maternal control style was quantified on a control to support-of-autonomy continuum, infant-mother attachment was assessed in the Strange Situation, and mastery-related behavior was observed in a toy play session at 12 and 20 months. Infants whose mothers were supportive of their autonomy displayed greater task-oriented persistence and competence during play than did infants of more controlling mothers; securely attached and avoidant infants tended to exhibit greater persistence at tasks than anxious-ambivalent babies, and ambivalent babies were the most negative in affect.

Maternal Elaborative Reminiscing Increases Low-Income Children's Narrative Skills Relative to Dialogic Reading

Research Findings: This study compared the unique effects of training low-income mothers in dialogic reading versus elaborative reminiscing on childrens oral language and emergent literacy. Thirty-three low-income parents of 4-year-old children attending Head Start were randomly assigned to either dialogic reading, elaborative reminiscing, or a control condition. Parents in the intervention conditions were trained to implement specific and prescribed conversational techniques. Childrens vocabulary, narrative, and print skills were assessed at the beginning (pretest) and at the end (posttest) of the school year. Elaborative reminiscing boosted the quality of childrens narratives in comparison to dialogic reading. Elaborative reminiscing was also effective in supporting childrens story comprehension. These training effects were present regardless of the childrens ethnic background and whether they were bilingual. Practice: Training parents in elaborative reminiscing is a promising alternative to training in shared book reading for enhancing childrens narrative development in non-mainstream populations. Parent training programs in elaborative reminiscing may also complement dialogic reading programs that take place in preschool classrooms.

The Development of Self-Determination in Middle Childhood and Adolescence

Publisher Summary This chapter deals with the development of self-determination in middle childhood and adolescence. This chapter focuses on the issue of self-determination, the purpose that children come to experience a sense of self-determination in the activities they pursue, whether this makes a difference in childrens performance and well-being. It also answers the question of preventing children from feeling a sense of self-determination and the work of educators and psychologists, which can facilitate self-determination. This chapter says that when it considers the development of self-determination, it can approach at least two ways. First it thinks the purpose of people, moving toward the sense of self-determination. It can try to understand the developmental process. Second, it asks about individual differences: the purpose is that some individuals are self-determined and others are not for the very same activity. These two issues are linked in than; if one understands the general process through which development occurs, one begins to understand the origins of individual differences. This chapter concludes that new studies can teach ways to intervene with at-risk children to restore their enjoyment of learning and their self-determination around school-related and other tasks. It is encouraging to imagine a classroom of children, fully engaged in their work, following their interests and natural curiosity, and extending themselves, out of a love of learning, beyond the minimum required of them. Such a classroom is the promise of future work on self-determination.

Maternal control style and the mastery motivation of one‐year‐olds

Forty-one mothers and their 12-month-old infants participated in a study of the effects of maternal control style on infant mastery motivation. Three scales were designed to assess maternal control style during a mother-infant play session. Mastery motivation was assessed in an experimenter-administered structured toy play procedure. Three components, persistence, competence, and affect, comprised the measure of mastery motivation. Mothers also completed questionnaires on child-rearing attitudes, infant temperament, and control style. Results showed that maternal attitudes and behavior were correlated with infant mastery motivation. More specifically: autonomy-oriented control behavior, sensitive care and knowledge of child-rearing were positively related to infant mastery motivation. The results provide converging evidence regarding the multiple aspects of maternal behavior which affect infant motivation.

Infant emotion regulation with mothers and fathers

Abstract This study was designed to examine infant emotion regulation within mildly frustrating delay situations with mothers and fathers. Contextual influences on, and consistent individual differences in, observed strategy use and expressed emotion were assessed in a sample of 12 1 2 -to 14-month- old infants, each seen on two occasions, once with each parent. Infants were seen in two delay situations with each parent, one in which the parent was asked to remain fairly inactive, and one in which no restrictions were placed on parental behavior. Results suggested strong contextual (parent- passive vs. parent-active) influences on the level of expressed negative versus positive emotion, and on the types of emotion regulation strategies used by infants, but few sex-of-parent effects. Overall, results suggest that expressed emotion and strategy use are more similar than different in interactions with mothers and fathers. However, some differential use of particular emotion regulation strategies may reflect developing adaptations made by infants to different characteristics of relationships with mothers and fathers.

Children's Expectancies and Perceptions of Adults: Effects on Rapport

Interpersonal expectancy effects are less thoroughly understood in children than in adults, yet they can have practical implications for childrens interactions. To understand better childrens expectancies, this study extended earlier work to include expectancies of adults, preexisting (i.e., noninduced) expectancies, and joint effects of expectancies and subsequent perceptions. Children (N = 81) in Grades 4 through 6 (i.e., 9- to 12-year-olds) indicated their expectancies of adults who subsequently interacted with them using a style of either autonomy support (AS) or control (CN). After each interaction, children reported on perceived AS and on rapport. Results indicated that childrens expectancies and subsequent perceptions interact to predict rapport, adult AS is associated with increased rapport, and the effect of childrens expectancies on rapport is only partially mediated by their perceptions.