James Price Dillard

On the Nature of Reactance and its Role in Persuasive Health Communication

Reactance theory might be profitably applied to understanding failures in persuasive health communication but for one drawback: The developer of the theory contends that reactance cannot be measured. Rejecting this position, this paper develops four alternative conceptual perspectives on the nature of reactance (i.e., combinations of cognition and affect), then provides an empirical test of each. Two parallel studies were conducted, one advocating flossing the other urging students to limit their alcohol intake In both cases, a composite index of anger and negative cognitions fully mediated the effects of threat-to-freedom and trait reactance on attitude and intention. The data showed that, in fact, reactance can be operationalized as a composite of self-report indices of anger and negative cognitions. The implications for persuasive communication, in general, are considered as well the specific findings for flossing and drinking.

Affect and Persuasion Emotional Responses to Public Service Announcements

An experiment was designed to examine the role of emotion in persuasion. In this study, 140 undergraduates viewed eight public service announcements (PSAs) and then reported on their cognitive, emotional, and attitudinal responses to each. Some participants were instructed to attend to their feelings and use them in evaluating the PSAs (heuristic-enabled condition), whereas others were told to dampen their feelings and not let their emotions influence their judgments of the PSAs (heuristic-disabled condition). After controlling for cognition, the data showed a unique and separate effect for each emotion on perceived message effectiveness. However, the manipulations produced no observable effect on the magnitude of association between emotion and perceived effectiveness. Effects of both emotion and cognition on attitude toward the issue were mediated by perceived message effectiveness. A second study showed that perceived effectiveness and liking for the message are distinct judgments. Effectiveness is the preferred measure for studying PSAs.

Primary and secondary goals in the production of interpersonal influence messages

In this paper we argue that an individuals activities, prior to and during an interpersonal influence attempt, may be explained by his or her goals. Two classes of goals are posited: (1) primary or influence goals which instigate the influence process, and (2) secondary goals which shape it. Three studies are reported whose purpose was to illuminate the substance of each of these goals, to examine their relationships to one another, and finally, to show how the goals shape the interpersonal influence process (for the source) in terms of planning, effort, directness, positivity, and logic. The results suggest the existence of five secondary goals: identity goals, interaction goals, personal resource goals, relational resource goals, and arousal management goals. With the exception of personal goals, each of the goals makes a unique contribution to shaping the sources actions.

The Multiple Affective Outcomes of AIDS PSAs Fear Appeals Do More Than Scare People

The widespread use of fear appeals in health communication campaigns seems to reflect the existence of a folk theory that predicts message acceptance as a function of induced fright. Whereas there is empirical evidence consistent with that position, recent research also shows that other affects may influence message acceptance as well. Two studies were conducted to determine the extent to which a sample of public service announcements (PSAs) on the topic of AIDS / HIV evoked affective responses, the degree to which those affects predicted message acceptance, and the mechanism by which feelings, including fear; operate on message acceptance. Results showed that a variety of affects were induced by the PSAs, most of which did predict message acceptance. However, considerable variation was observed in both sign and magnitude of the associations. As for mechanism, the data suggested that the effects of affect on message acceptance were mediated by heuristic rather than systematic message processing.

Empathy, communication, and prosocial behavior

Two studies were conducted to examine the relationships among different dimensions of empathy, communication, and prosocial behavior. Study one provides a test of three models hypothesized to explain this process. Results of this study indicated support for altruism as a motivator of prosocial behavior and suggest that the egoism and dual‐process models are unlikely explanations. Study two was conducted in hopes of identifying additional support for the model that emerged from study one. The second study fully replicated the findings of the first study. Results from both studies suggest that prosocial behavior is motivated primarily by concern for others. Moreover, emotional reactions to the perceived distress of others are preceded by a concern for others. Together, these findings strongly support an altruistic interpretation of prosocial behavior and suggest that the egoistic model be reformulated.

The Influence of Behavioral Inhibition/Approach Systems and Message Framing on the Processing of Persuasive Health Messages

Two experiments examine the role of message framing and behavioral inhibition/ approach systems (BIS/BAS) on affect, cognition, attitude, and behavioral intention. The results show that advantage framing yields stronger positive emotions, whereas disadvantage framing produces stronger negative emotions. BIS and BAS show a complex pattern of associations with emotions that is not wholly consistent with either the approach—avoidance or valence aspects of affect. There is an interaction between BIS/BAS and message frame on persuasion such that BIS correlates positively with dominant cognitive response under disadvantage framing, but BAS does so under advantage framing. These findings are contextualized in process models (structural equation modeling) that include anger, fear, attitude, and behavioral intention.

Structuring the concept of relational communication

Since the distinction was first drawn between content and relational aspects of communication, the notion of relational communication has evolved from a unitary focus on dominance to a multi‐faceted concept that embraces as many as 12 subcomponents. With the aim of devising a theoretical structure to these many concepts, we advanced three proposals. First, we distinguished intensifier variables, such as involvement, and substantive variables, such as dominance and affiliation. Second, we argued that relational judgments are hierarchically organized such that dominance and affiliation subsume the more specific facets of relational communication identified in prior research. Third, we suggested that dominance and affiliation constitute competing frames for interpreting involvement cues during social interaction. A study was conducted in which participants (N= 805) responded to the Burgoon and Hale (1987) Relational Message Scale. First‐order factor analysis was largely successful in reconfirming the structu...

Situational influences on the selection of compliance‐gaining messages: Two tests of the predictive utility of the Cody‐McLaughlin typology

Recent work on the dimensions of compliance‐gaining situations offers an opportunity for systematizing a portion of message selection research. Two studies that utilize the six dimensions isolated by Cody and McLaughlin (1980), as well as one other, as predictors of compliance‐gaining message selection are reported. The first study relied on the hypothetical situation method typical of most compliance‐gaining research. Study 2 utilized a new method that asked participants to recall a persuasion situation they had been part of. Across the two investigations the effects attributable to the situation were relatively few in number and small in size. Several alternative interpretations of the data are suggested. The advantages and disadvantages of the two methods are examined. Explanations for each of the situational effects (or lack thereof) are considered.

The Current Status of Research on Sequential-Request Compliance Techniques:

Three meta-analyses have been conducted on the foot-in-the-door literature and two on the door-in-the-face. This article presents a qualitative comparison and synthesis of those quantitative reviews. First, an overview of the findings is presented. Next, two recent attempts to develop a theoretical perspective that accounts for both request sequences are examined. Finally, attention is given to questions that are as yet unresolved.

Influence, appraisals, and emotions in close relationships

Influence messages can be characterized along two dimensions: explicitness and dominance. These dimensions were cast as causally antecedent to cognitive appraisals which, in turn, were expected to shape emotional response. Two studies were conducted in which participants were asked to assume the role of message target and then view a video of an influence message. The first study made use of a gain‐assistance goal, and the second was constructed around a give‐advice goal. Whereas both studies show strong support for the appraisal‐emotion link, the effect of message form on appraisals was weaker and more complex than expected. The results imply that only a subset of the appraisals are relevant to influence attempts in close relationships. Furthermore, dominance and explicitness showed unique and nonparallel effects on appraisals. Implications for appraisal theory, politeness theory, and interpersonal influence are discussed.