Jamie Taylor

Stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness: Gender, type of sport, and skill differences

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine stressors, coping, and coping effectiveness as a function of gender, type of sport, and skill. The sample consisted of 749 undergraduate athletes (455 males, 294 females) aged 18 – 38 years (mean = 19.8 years). Skill was classified as international/national, county, university, and club standard. Participants completed a stressor and coping concept map (Novak & Gowin, 1984). The results revealed gender, type of sport, and skill differences in relation to stressor frequencies, coping strategy deployment, and coping effectiveness. In contrast to previous research, females used a variety of problem-focused (e.g. planning, communication, technique-orientated coping) strategies more frequently than males. Team sport athletes reported a variety of sport-specific stressors relating to the demands of playing in a team environment. The group of national/international athletes reported using more planning, blocking, and visualization, and also reported that their coping was more effective than that of less-skilled athletes.

Evidence for Skill Level Differences in the Thought Processes of Golfers During High and Low Pressure Situations

Two studies examined differences in the cognition of golfers with differing levels of expertise in high and low pressure situations. In study 1, six high skill and six low skill golfers performed six holes of golf, while verbalizing their thoughts using Think Aloud (TA) protocol. Higher skilled golfers’ cognitive processes centered more on planning in comparison to lower skilled golfers. Study 2 investigated whether thought processes of golfers changed in response to competitive pressure. Eight high skill and eight moderate skilled golfers, completed a practice round and a competition round whilst verbalizing thoughts using TA. To create pressure in the competition condition, participants were instructed that monetary prizes would be awarded to the top three performers and scores of all golfers would be published in a league table in the club house. When performing under competitive pressure, it was found that higher skilled golfers were more likely to verbalize technical rules compared to practice conditions, especially during putting performance. This shift in cognition toward more technical aspects of motor performance was strongly related to scores on the Decision Specific Reinvestment Scale, suggesting individuals with a higher propensity for reinvestment show the largest changes in cognition under pressure. From a practical perspective, TA can aid a player, coach or sport psychologist by allowing thought processes to be identified and investigate a performer’s thoughts when faced with the pressure of a competition.

Examination of the suitability of collecting in event cognitive processes using Think Aloud protocol in golf.

Two studies examined the use of Think Aloud (TA) protocol as a means for collecting data of cognitive processes during performance in golf. In Study 1, TA was employed to examine if different verbalisation (Level 2 or Level 3 TA) instructions influence performance of high and low skilled golfers. Participants performed 30 putts using TA at either Levels 2, 3, or no verbalization condition. Although Level 3 verbalization produced a higher volume of verbal data than Level 2, TA at either Level 2 or 3 did not impair putting performance compared to no verbalization. Study 2 examined the congruence between data collected via TA at Level 3 and cued retrospective recall of cognitive processes during golf performance. Experienced golfers performed six holes of golf whilst engaging in Level 3 TA. After performance, three semi-structured retrospective interviews were conducted (10 min after performance, 24 h after performance and 48 h after performance). A comparison of the themes identified large discrepancies between the information reported during TA and at interview, with only 38–41% similarity in variables reported to influence decision making on each hole. Both studies suggest TA is a valuable method for recording cognitive processes of individuals during task performance. TA provides richer verbal data regarding decisions than cued retrospective recall, and TA does not negatively impact performance.

The validity of retrospective recall in assessing practice regimes in golf

A criticism of the extant sports expertise literature has been the reliance placed upon retrospective methods to scrutinise the developments of elite sports performers. The aim of this study was to compare volumes and intensities of golf activities performed by nine aspiring elite adolescent golfers over a nine-month period with what they recalled once the study was terminated. Over a seven-day period on four separate occasions, participants recorded the participation trends and intensities of all golf activities undertaken in self-report diary logs. One week after the final data collection period, participants were guided through a retrospective interview schedule which focussed on retrieving data which highlighted patterns, volumes and intensities of golf activity undertaken throughout the previous nine months. Interview and diary data were compared to establish the accuracy of retrospective recall. Recalled and diary data were found to be very similar which supports the idea that retrospective recall is a dependable method to accurately determine the nature of golf activities undertaken over the course of a nine-month time frame. This finding has important practical implications for future talent development research which may wish to retrospectively examine the nature of developments on a more frequent basis as opposed to periods of 10 years and longer that are commonplace within the existing literature.

Changes in cognition over a 16.1 km cycling time trial using Think Aloud protocol: Preliminary evidence

Objectives: This study investigated cognitions of cyclists during a competitive time trial (TT) event using Think Aloud (TA) protocol analysis. Design: Single group, observational design. Method: Fifteen male and three female cyclists from the North West of England verbalised their thoughts throughout an outdoor competitive 16.1 km cycling TT (Level 2 TA). Verbalisations were recorded using iVue Horizon 1080P camera glasses. Data were transcribed verbatim, analysed using deductive content analysis and grouped into themes: (i) Pain And Discomfort (Fatigue, Pain), (ii) External Feedback (Time, Speed, Heart Rate), (iii) Environment (Surroundings, Traffic and Other Cyclists), and (iv) Pace and Distance (Pace, Distance). The number of verbalisations within each theme was analysed by distance quartile using Friedman tests to examine changes in cognitions over time. Results: Associative themes, including Fatigue and Pain, were verbalised more frequently in the earlier stages of the TT and less in the final quartile, whereas verbalisations about Distance significantly increased in the last quartile. Conclusions: This study demonstrates how a novel data collection method can capture in-event cognitions of endurance athletes. It provides an important extension to previous literature, showing how individuals may process and attend to information over time during an exercise bout. Future research should establish the relationship between performance and cognitive processes.

From Pre-Elite to Elite: The Pathway Travelled by Adolescent Golfers

This study employed interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) to explore the lived experiences of eight high performing adolescent golfers who had all successfully travelled the path from novice to elite level status. By means of semi-structured qualitative interviews, participants answered questions centred on four key areas which explored their journey from pre-elite to elite adolescent status: initial involvement and continued participation in golf, the meaning of golf, golf environment and social support. Two super-ordinate themes emerged from participants accounts: Early Pre-Elite Sporting Experiences and Strategic Approaches to Develop Adolescent Golfing Excellence. The study provides key insights into individual, social and environmental factors that enabled pre-elite adolescent golfers to make a successful transition to the elite pathway, and highlights plausible factors that may make a difference whether an athlete becomes elite or not. The findings will help coaches, policy makers and sport psychologists more effectively support emerging talent in golf.

The creation of a superstitious belief regarding putters in a laboratory-based golfing task

The objective was to determine the extent to which it was possible to induce superstitious behaviour and beliefs in a golf putting task in a laboratory. Participants (N = 28) took part in a putting task using three identical clubs in which visual feedback regarding performance was restricted. Participants were provided with verbal feedback of their performance, which was honest when they used one putter, negative with a second putter (they did better than they were told) and positive with a third (they did worse than they were told). After this initial acquisition phase, a competition was announced and participants were asked to select a putter they would like to use. The participants were then asked to rate various qualities of the putters. Significantly more participants selected the “positive” putter for the competition (N = 22) compared to the “negative” putter (N = 1), p < .001. In addition, participants claimed that the positive putter had a better weight, was more comfortable and easier to use than the negative putter (all p < .001). Overall, this evidence can be taken to show that a superstitious belief can be formed in a short amount of time within a laboratory setting and that it can affect both the perceptions and choices of an individual.