Jan L. Plass

Direct Measurement of Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

Cognitive load theory (CLT) is gaining increasing importance in the design and evaluation of instruction, both traditional and technology based. Although it is well understood as a theoretical construct, the measurement of cognitive load induced by instructional materials in general, and by multimedia instruction in particular, mainly relies on methods that are either indirect, subjective, or both. Integrating aspects of CLT, working memory research, and cognitive theories of multimedia learning, we describe the conceptual basis and practical implementation of a dual-task approach to the direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. This computer-based instrument provides a direct and objective measure that overcomes many of the shortcomings of other indirect and subjective methods that will enable researchers to validate empirically theoretical predictions of CLT.

Supporting visual and verbal learning preferences in a second-language multimedia learning environment

English-speaking college students who were enrolled in a German course read a 762-word German language story presented by a computer program. For key words in the story, students could choose to see a translation on the screen in English (i.e., verbal annotation) or view a picture or video clip representing the word (i.e,, visual annotation), or both. Students remembered word translations better when they had selected both visual and verbal annotations during learning than only 1 or no annotation; students comprehended the story better when they had the opportunity to receive their preferred mode of annotation. Results are consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning that assumes that learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into coherent mental representations, and integrate these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another.

Cognitive load in reading a foreign language text with multimedia aids and the influence of verbal and spatial abilities

When do multiple representations of information in second-language learning help and when do they hinder learning? English-speaking college students (N=152), enrolled in a second-year German course, read a 762-word German story presented by a multimedia computer program. Students received no annotations, verbal annotations, visual annotations, or both for 35 key words in the story. Recall of word translations was worse for low-verbal and lowspatial ability students than for high-verbal and high-spatial ability students, respectively, when they received visual annotations for vocabulary words, but did not differ when they received verbal annotations. Text comprehension was worst for all learners when they received visual annotations. Results are consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning and with cognitive load theory which assume that multimedia learning processes are executed under the constraints of limited working memory. # 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Cognitive load theory

Introduction Jan L. Plass, Roxana Moreno and Roland Brunken Part I. Theory: 1. Cognitive load theory: historical development and relation to other theories Roxana Moreno and Babette Park 2. Cognitive load theory: recent theoretical advances John Sweller 3. Schema acquisition and sources of cognitive load Slava Kalyuga 4. Individual differences and cognitive load theory Jan L. Plass and Slava Kalyuga Part II. Empirical Evidence: 5. Learning from worked-out examples and problem solving Alexander Renkl and Robert K. Atkinson 6. Instructional control of cognitive load in the design of complex learning environments Liesbeth Kester, Fred Paas and Jeroen J. G. van Merrienboer 7. Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning Richard E. Mayer and Roxana Moreno 8. Techniques that increase generative processing in multimedia learning: open questions for cognitive-load research Roxana Moreno and Richard E. Mayer Part III. Discussion: 9. Measuring cognitive load Roland Brunken, Tina Seufert and Fred Paas 10. From neo-behaviorism to neuroscience: perspectives on the origins and future contributions of cognitive load research Richard E. Clark and Vincent P. Clark 11. Cognitive load in learning with multiple representations Holger Horz and Wolfgang Schnotz 12. Current issues and open questions in cognitive load research Roland Brunken, Jan L. Plass and Roxana Moreno.

SUPPORTING LISTENING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY ACQUISITION IN FRENCH WITH MULTIMEDIA ANNOTATIONS

English-speaking college students enrolled in a French course listened to a 2-minute, 20-second historical account in French presented by a computer program. The participants were randomly assigned to one of four listening treatments: the listening text (a) with no annotations available, (b) with only written annotations available, (c) with only pictorial annotations available, and (d) with both written and pictorial annotations available. The students remembered word translations and recalled the passage better when they had selected both written and pictorial annotations while listening rather than one of these types or no annotations. In addition, effect sizes were much larger for pictorial annotations than for written annotations, especially for delayed tests. The results were consistent with Mayers (1997, 2001) Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning and extend this theory to listening comprehension.

Assessment of cognitive load in multimedia learning using dual-task methodology.

In two pilot experiments, a new approach for the direct assessment of cognitive load during multimedia learning was tested that uses dual-task methodology. Using this approach, we obtained the same pattern of cognitive load as predicted by cognitive load theory when applied to multimedia learning: The audiovisual presentation of text-based and picture-based learning materials induced less cognitive load than the visual-only presentation of the same material. The findings confirm the utility of dual-task methodology as a promising approach for the assessment of cognitive load induced by complex multimedia learning systems.

Design factors for educationally effective animations and simulations

This paper reviews research on learning from dynamic visual representations and offers principles for the design of animations and simulations that assure their educational effectiveness. In addition to established principles, new and revised design principle are presented that have been derived from recent research. Our review focuses on the visual design and interaction design of these visualizations and presents existing research as well as questions for future inquiry.

Facilitating Reading Comprehension with Multimedia

Abstract Based on recent theories of the L2 reading process that have focused on an interactive approach, i.e. the utilization of both top-down and bottom-up processing, this paper is concerned with the question of how reading comprehension can be facilitated with a multimedia application for language learning. On the macro level, the effect of a dynamic visual advance organizer is investigated. On the micro level, the effects of multimedia annotations for single vocabulary items are studied. In addition, the relationship between vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension is examined. To test our hypotheses three studies with a total of 160 students were conducted using the multimedia application CyberBuch. The results indicate that a dynamic visual advance organizer does aid in overall comprehension and that annotations of individual vocabulary items consisting of both visual and verbal information help more than verbal information only. Also, a moderate correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension was found. These results support the dual coding theory and its extension to multimedia learning and underline the importance of visual information in addition to verbal information to support both top-down and bottom-up processing in reading in a foreign language.

Interactivity in multimedia learning: An integrated model

What does interactivity entail? What factors need to be taken into account in the design of interactive systems? Although interactivity is a widely used term accorded great prominence in discussions of multimedia learning, even a preliminary look at the literature suggests that how interactivity is defined, and what benefits it may offer, are not at all clear. The goal of this article is therefore to clarify the concept of interactivity. We present a unifying model that includes the user, the learning environment, and a system of connections and concepts that together make up interactivity. Such a model can help inform research, discussion, and design decisions on interactive multimedia instruction.

The effects of video on cognitive load and social presence in multimedia-learning

Two studies examined the use of video in multimedia learning environments. In Study 1, participants (N=26) viewed one of two versions of a computer-based multimedia presentation: video, which included a video of a lecture with synchronized slides, or no video, which included the slides but only an audio narration of the lecture. Learning, cognitive load and social presence were assessed, but a significant difference was found only for cognitive load, with video experiencing greater cognitive load, t (24)=2.45, p<.05. In Study 2, students (N=25) were randomly assigned to either video or no video condition. Background knowledge and visual/verbal learning preference were assessed before viewing the presentation, and learning, cognitive load, and social presence were assessed after viewing. No significant differences were found for learning or social presence. However, a significant visual/verbal learning preference by condition interaction was found for cognitive load, F (1,21)=4.51, p<.05: low visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the video condition, while high visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the no video condition.