Ruth N. Schwartz

Interactivity in multimedia learning: An integrated model

What does interactivity entail? What factors need to be taken into account in the design of interactive systems? Although interactivity is a widely used term accorded great prominence in discussions of multimedia learning, even a preliminary look at the literature suggests that how interactivity is defined, and what benefits it may offer, are not at all clear. The goal of this article is therefore to clarify the concept of interactivity. We present a unifying model that includes the user, the learning environment, and a system of connections and concepts that together make up interactivity. Such a model can help inform research, discussion, and design decisions on interactive multimedia instruction.

Effects of pacing and cognitive style across dynamic and non-dynamic representations

The effects of self-pacing versus system-pacing were examined in different versions of a computer-based learning environment (static pictures/animations). The role of cognitive style was also considered. While the variables investigated did not have a direct impact on either learning outcome or cognitive load, significant interaction effects were found. Concerning the difference between self- and system-pacing, results suggested that for animations, self-pacing was - as expected - effective, while for static pictures, the opposite was true. With respect to the difference between animations and static pictures, analyses showed that learners tending toward a visual cognitive style learned significantly better with animations than with static pictures. For learners tending toward a verbal style, learning outcomes were descriptively better with static pictures, although in that case the difference between animations and static pictures did not reach significance. The results indicate that self-pacing as a feature of learning environments is not universally advantageous, and highlight the importance of considering the role of individual learning differences such as cognitive style when choosing or developing computer-based learning environments. The findings are discussed considering contemporary theories of cognitive load and multimedia learning.

Learning from multiple representations: An examination of fixation patterns in a science simulation

The present study examined how the integration of multiple representations in a multimedia simulation was associated with learning in high school students (N = 25). Using eye-tracking technology, we recorded fixations on different representations of the Ideal Gas Laws, as well as transitions between them, within a computer-based model that included a gas container with animated gas molecules, control sliders to adjust different gas variables, and a graph depicting the relations between the variables. As predicted, fixation transitions between conceptually related parts of the simulation were associated with different learning outcomes. Specifically, greater transition frequency between the gas container and the graph was related to better transfer, but not comprehension. In contrast, greater transition frequency between the control sliders and the graph was related to better comprehension, but not transfer. Furthermore, these learning outcomes were independent of learners’ prior knowledge, as well as the frequency and duration of fixations on any individual simulation element. This research not only demonstrates the importance of employing multiple representations in multimedia learning environments, but also suggests that making conceptual connections between specific elements of those representations can have an association with the level at which the information is learned.

Just enough, but not too much interactivity leads to better clinical skills performance after a computer assisted learning module

Background: Well-designed computer-assisted instruction (CAI) can potentially transform medical education. Yet little is known about whether specific design features such as direct manipulation of the content yield meaningful gains in clinical learning. We designed three versions of a multimedia module on the abdominal exam incorporating different types of interactivity. Methods: As part of their physical diagnosis course, 162 second-year medical students were randomly assigned (1:1:1) to Watch, Click or Drag versions of the abdominal exam module. First, students’ prior knowledge, spatial ability, and prior experience with abdominal exams were assessed. After using the module, students took a posttest; demonstrated the abdominal exam on a standardized patient; and wrote structured notes of their findings. Results: Data from143 students were analyzed. Baseline measures showed no differences among groups regarding prior knowledge, experience, or spatial ability. Overall there was no difference in knowledge across groups. However, physical exam scores were significantly higher for students in the Click group. Conclusions: A mid-range level of behavioral interactivity was associated with small to moderate improvements in performance of clinical skills. These improvements were likely mediated by enhanced engagement with the material, within the bounds of learners’ cognitive capacity. These findings have implications for the design of CAI materials to teach procedural skills.

The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning: Multimedia Learning with Simulations and Microworlds

This chapter examines ways in which technology can provide a medium for innovative design and the delivery of instruction that can result in new ways of learning and high levels of student engagement. Scaffolding can be a cognitive support for problem solving or motivational support to help learners realize their potential. BioWorld is a technology-rich learning environment designed to support medical students as they develop clinical reasoning skills. As stated earlier, the educational platforms are varied; they include pedagogical agents that serve as intelligent virtual tutors that employ language, facial expressions, and gestures to create effective learning experiences; simulation-based environments for promoting team effectiveness in trauma units; multimedia game environments to promote reasoning; virtual reality to provide immersive learning experiences; communication based video technologies to promote cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary teaching experiences; and social networking tools that are reusable for creating new knowledge.

Click versus drag: User-performed tasks and the enactment effect in an interactive multimedia environment

Does learner performance of specific tasks in an interactive multimedia environment affect learning outcomes? Within a multimedia environment, users may engage in a range of actions, or interactive tasks, from tapping a keyboard to executing large motor movements. To investigate the impact of particular performance tasks on learning, we first introduce an approach to classifying interactive multimedia tasks as enactive, iconic or symbolic. We then describe a study in which university students (N=112) used a computer program that presented a series of action phrases in 4 different conditions, each condition requiring performance of a different task: listen (audio only), look (audio with static graphic), click (audio with animation triggered by a click), or drag (audio with click-and-drag graphic). Participants were tested on free recall and recognition of phrases immediately after treatment and again after 3weeks. At immediate testing, recall was best for drag (iconic) items, followed by click (symbolic), look, and listen items, in that order, with significant differences between each pair of conditions. For immediate recognition, as well as for delayed free recall and delayed recognition, mean scores followed the same pattern, with some variations in significance. Results support our proposed classification of interactive behaviors, extend previous findings on the enactment effect into a computer environment, and suggest the importance of considering the design of interactive tasks in the development of multimedia learning materials.